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The Gardens' Bullet i
Singapore
L. 49 (Part 1) June 1997 | ISSN 0374-7859
NATIONAL PARKS BOARD
Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 259569 Tel: 4741165 Telefax: 4754205
THE GARDENS’ BULLETIN
The Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore publishes papers on plant taxonomy (including revisions),
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Singapore Botanic Gardens
Dr M.J.E. Coode
Royal Botanic Gardens
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Leiden, Netherlands
Dr E. Soepadmo
- Forest Research Institute Malaysia
Kepong, Malaysia
Dr W.K. Tan :
Singapore Botanic Gardens
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- WdUL 39 1998 2 bansronl
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The Gardens' Bulletin
Singapore
VOL. 49 (Part 1) June 1997 ISSN 0374-7859
CONTENTS
Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, E.E.L. Seah, A.H.B. Loo and Ali Ibrahim
PRC CiIGns TOMS Mora OL Sime apOGe MT oe a ..s.a hans savesuasncucdaagesece den preseseveacsecacurncteasechdeedonsetes’ 1
Teo, S.P.
Root Wemi-parasitismy im Malavan Olacace ae «0... ic..h.nc-senssssecssuedecexetsncasnevavagedessnoransdenedpasabens 7
Tan, H.T.W., M.F Choong, K.S. Chua, A.H.B. Loo, Hj. Samsuri Hj. Ahmad,
E.E.L. Seah, I.M. Turner and J.W.H. Yong
A botanical survey of Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Simgapote ...........0:.c..ssveccescersnesececsseees 15
Kiew, R., S. Madhavan and Hamsah Selamat
Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora (Euphorbiaceae) ...........ceceeseceseeeeeees 37
Ali Ibrahim, P.T. Chew, Hj. Sidek Kiah and Joseph T.K. Lai
New records or plat species [Om SIMGAPOLS’....2...4.04.escce-Lecmaeabidedsssatdwencadsnsvedeccossbangeencoedes 49
Loo, A.H.B. and H.T.W. Tan
The angiosperm flora of Singapore, Part 6. Caesalpimiaceae ..........:....ccsccsesesseasstccecsaceees aD
Choo, J.P.S. and H.T.W. Tan
The angiosperm flora of Singapore, Part 7. Limmocharitaceae ..............sceseeseeeteeeteeeeees 107
Lim S.P. and R. Kiew
Gazetteer of limestone localities in Sabah, Borne iiss) cccsscdessaccdesevenctoceskecscensosvasececees 111
Turner, I.M. and J.W.H. Yong
The botany of the islands of Mersing District, Johore, Peninsular Malaysia.
Lyiiespiantisiand veschation Ol PULAU Pim eh i). iiccciczdacstcasccdemdexsnceesoacncsatshicecsesecnhenvereneess 119
BOOK REVIEW
Soepadmo, E. and K.M. Wong. The Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak .............ccccccsecseseeeeeeees 143
Vol..1 and 2. I.M. Turner
Date of Publication: 10 May 1998
Published by
National Parks Board
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Cluny Road
Singapore 259569
Printed by Oxford Graphic Printers Pte Ltd
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) I-5.
Additions to the Flora of Singapore, III’.
I.M. TuRNER!, H.T.W. TAn!, E.E.L. SEAH', A.H.B. Loo! AND ALI BIN IBRAHINZ
‘School of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore
Singapore 119260
“Singapore Botanic Gardens
Cluny Road
Singapore 259569
Abstract
Eleven species are added to the flora of Singapore as presented by Turner (1993).
Lecanopteris sinuosa (Polypodiaceae) was mistakenly omitted from that list. Records of
Dischidia complex (Asclepiadaceae), Grenacheria fulva (Myrsinaceae) and Microcos
globulifera (Tiliaceae) were also overlooked. Mangifera paludosa (Anacardiaceae) has
recently been described from a pre-War Singapore collection. Combretum tetralophum
(Combrebaceae), Korthalsia flagellaris (Palmae), Pouteria linggensis (Sapotaceae) and
Sindora coriacea (Leguminosae) are native species that have newly been collected for the
first time in Singapore. The successful naturalization of Justicia procumbens (Acanthaceae)
and Macroptilium atropurpureum (Leguminosae) is reported.
Introduction
In this series of articles on the flora of Singapore, we have taken the list
published by Turner (1993) as the reference point for the composition of
the flora. Subsequently species found growing wild in Singapore that are
not included in the list have been reported. In the current paper eleven
more species are added to the list. Nomenclature follows Turner (1995)
wherever possible.
1. Combretum tetralophum C.B. Clarke Combretaceae
Large liana or scandent shrub with spikes of small sweet-smelling flowers.
The fruits are ovoid to 4 cm long, with four distinct, longitudinal, sharp-
edged wings or ridges. The species is characteristic of lowland river margins
and back mangroves and is probably dispersed by water. It occurs from
Indo-China to the Pacific, though it is absent from the Philippines (Exell,
1954 p. 541). Its occurrence in Singapore is therefore not surprising, but it
‘Continued from Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 42 (1994) 131-135.
2 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
has eluded detection for many years, until recently when it was collected in
fruit on Pulau Semakau (H.7T.W. Tan et al. $1005, 27 September 96 SINU).
2. Dischidia complex Griff. Asclepiadaceae
A twining epiphyte with pitcher-like leaves (Rintz, 1980 p. 97) found in
lowland forest. It is known from the south of the Malay Peninsula and
Borneo. At least one Singapore collection is known (E.J.H. Corner s.n.,
January 1933, Jurong SING), but it is probably exinct today.
3. Grenacheria fulva (Mez) Airy Shaw Myrsinaceae
A climbing shrub (in Stone 1989 p. 279 as Embelia fulva Mez) it was once
collected (E.J.H. Corner SFN 26195, 5 March 1933 SING) from the swamp
forests that covered Jurong before development of the area took place.
The species is endemic to the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and is probably
now extinct in Singapore.
4. Justicia procumbens L. Acanthaceae
Small prostrate herb, creeping, to 60 cm long, with small, terminal spikes
of zygomorphic flowers which have pale pink-purple corollas with darker
markings. It is included in Mohamad Soerjani et al. (1987 p. 28) under its
synonym Rostellularia sundana Bremek. It was first collected in Singapore
by Ahamed (16 October 1954) along Mandai Road. It still occurs in that
area (I.M. Turner 93-6, 3 January 1993, Mandai Lake Road SINU), but
recently appears to have become more common. It is a frequent weed of
short mown grass around Holland Village, and has also been seen along
Alexandra Road. It appears to be another example of a weedy species
filling an empty niche in urban Singapore.
5. Korthalsia flagellaris Miq. Palmae
Large clustering rattan to 40 m in length readily distinguished by its almost
unarmed stems, and bright green leaflets which are covered with a red-
brown indumentum on the lower surface (Dransfield, 1979 p. 42). The
leaflets are sessile, but the base of the lamina is tightly, longitudinally
folded forming a flexible petiole-like connection to the rachis. Dransfield
reports this species as being confined to peat swamp forest. In Singapore it
has recently been found in the Nee Soon swamp forest (D.H. Murphy s.n.,
23 December 1994 SING; I.M. Turner & P.P. Kumar 18 SINU), which is
Additions to the Flora of Singapore, Ir 3
freshwater swamp with relatively little peat accumulation. Korthalsia
flagellaris is found in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo, and has
presumably been overlooked in Singapore until now.
6. Lecanopteris sinuosa (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel. Polypodiaceae
This species was mistakenly omitted from the Singapore species list (Turner
1993). It is the commoner of the ant-inhabited epiphytic ferns to be found
in Singapore (Johnson, 1977 p. 50 under the synonym Phymatodes sinuosa
(Wall. ex Hook.) J.Sm.).
7. Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urban Leguminosae
A twining perennial herb with hairy trifoliate leaves that appear distinctly
silvery and with very dark purple, almost black, flowers. It is native of
tropical America, but has been used throughout the tropics as a forage and
soil-binding plant (Jones & ‘t Mannetje, 1992 pp. 155-156). It has become
quite common on reclaimed land on Pulau Tekong where it was collected
recently (H.T.W. Tan et al. T2033, 20 August 1996 SINU). It seems highly
likely that this species will join its congener Macroptilium lathyroides (L.)
Urban as a frequent colonist of dry open waste ground in Singapore.
8. Mangifera paludosa Kosterm. Anacardiaceae
This species was recently described by Kostermans (Kostermans &
Bompard, 1993 p. 41) with Corner SFN 26193 collected from Jurong as the
holotype. It is a tree to 30 m tall found in freshwater swamp forest, often
behind mangroves and is known from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.
There can be little doubt that the species is no longer to be found in
Jurong.
In the same work, Kostermans also described Mangifera subsessilifolia
based on a Singapore type collected at Bukit Timah. However, this species
is known only from sterile material. Kostermans also referred a sterile
collection from the former swamp forest at Mandai Road (Kiah s.n. 24
July 1940 SING) to Mangifera magnifica Kochummen, a species not
previously recorded from Singapore. We leave final acceptance of these
species to whomever prepares the account of the Anacardiaceae for the
Angiosperm Flora of Singapore.
9. Microcos globulifera (Mast.) Burret Tiliaceae
This small tree of lowland forest (Kochummen, 1972 p. 397 under the
4 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
synonym Grewia globulifera Mast.) has escaped the notice of compilers of
the Singapore flora. It has been collected in the Botanic Gardens’ Jungle
(Hassan SFN 36267 25 April 1939 SING) and Bukit Timah (Ngadiman
SFN 36416 4 May 1939 SING). The species is endemic to the Malay
Peninsula.
10. Pouteria linggensis (Burck) Baehni Sapotaceae
A tree to 20 m tall found on rocky shores and occasionally inland (Ng,
1972 p. 436 under the synonym Planchonella linggensis (Burck) Pierre).
The species is found throughout Malesia and was recently discovered on
Pulau Sakijang Pelepah (Lazarus Island) (H.7.W. Tan et al. LIO01 SING).
11. Sindora coriacea (Baker) Prain Leguminosae
A big forest tree reaching more than 30 m in height, distinguished from
the other Malay Peninsula species of the genus by its shiny leaflets which
are glabrous beneath and its unarmed pods. The pods shown in Fig. 1 were
photographed in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve by Ali Ibrahim, but no
herbarium specimen was made. Later he collected a fertile specimen from
Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve (Wong, Ali & Chew 16, 23
Nov 1992 SING). A further sterile collection (A.H.B. Loo et al. 83,29 Oct
1996 SING) was gathered at Bukit Kallang. The species is common
Figure 1. Pods and seeds of Sindora coriacea found in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve,
Singapore.
Additions to the Flora of Singapore, ie 5
throughout Malaya and also occurs in Sumatra and Borneo. Presumably
its apparent rarity and confusion with other species of Sindora have hitherto
led to it being overlooked in Singapore.
References
Dransfield, J. (1979) A manual of the rattans of the Malay Peninsula.
Malayan Forest Records 29: 1-270.
Exell, A.W. (1954) Combretaceae. Flora Malesiana, series I 4: 533-589.
Johnson, A. (1977) A Student’s Guide to the Ferns of Singapore. Second
Edition. Singapore University Press, Singapore.
Jones, R.M., & ’*t Mannetje, L. (1992) Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.)
Urban. Pp. 155-157 in PROSEA Plant Resources of South-East Asia 4
Forages (eds: L. *t Mannetje & R.M. Jones), Pudoc Scientific Publishers,
Wageningen.
Kochummen, K.M. (1972) Tiliaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya 2: 392-412.
Kostermans, A.J.G.H., & Bompard, J.-M. (1993) The Mangoes. Academic
Press, London.
Mohamed Soerjani, Kostermans, A.J.G.H., & Tjitrosoepoma, G. (1987)
Weeds of Rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta.
Ng, F.S.P. (1972) Sapotaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya 1: 388-439.
Rintz, R.E. (1980) The Peninsular Malayan species of Dischidia
(Asclepiadaceae). Blumea 26: 81-126.
Stone, B.C. (1989) Myrsinaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya 4: 264-284.
Turner, I.M. (1993) The names used for Singapore plants since 1900.
Gardens’ Bulletin, Singapore 45: 1-287.
Turner, I.M. (1995) A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’
Bulletin, Singapore 47: 1-757.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 7-13.
Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae
STEPHEN P. TEO
Sarawak Herbarium
Sarawak Forestry Department
93600 Kuching
Sarawak
Abstract
Six species of Olacaceae found in the Malay Peninsula were investigated for parasitism. Root
parasitism was observed only in Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana var. americana but
not in Strombosia javanica, Scorodocarpus borneensis, Ochanostachys amentacea and
_Erythropalum scandens. Haustoria of the two parasitic species were found attached to a
number of hosts indicating that they are non-host specific. Anatomy of the haustoria revealed
that the suckers of the haustoria form a cup-like structure around the stelar region of the host
roots.
Introduction
Hemi-parasitism is known to occur among families of the Santalales.
Nevertheless, the extent to which parasitism occurs within the Olacaceae
has not been comprehensively investigated (Fineran, 1991). Cronquist (1981)
stated that most genera of Olacaceae are parasitic, while Whitmore (1973)
in his revision of Malayan Olacaceae, remarked that none is parasitic.
Corner (1988) mentioned that the roots of Ximenia americana are parasitic
including on roots of its own kind, while Backer and Bakhuizen (1965)
stated that the Olacaceae of Java are sometimes parasitic. However, there
is insufficient evidence to substantiate these claims. A review of literature
shows that the only published work on parasitism in Olacaceae reported
from Malesia is that on Olax imbricata from the Philippines (Herbert,
1922). Fineran (1991) cited geographical inaccessibility as the reason why
the Olacaceae was poorly studied. Field work was therefore undertaken in
Peninsular Malaysia to give a better understanding of the occurrence of
hemi-parasitism in the Olacaceae.
Materials and Methods
Parasitism can only be demonstrated by the presence of haustoria and
their penetration into the host roots. In the case of root parasites, the
haustoria occur below the soil surface so are not easy to locate. Indeed, a
8 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
cangkul and shovel were used to unearth the roots. The root systems were
then examined carefully for the presence of haustoria and host plants to
which the haustoria were attached were identified as far as possible. Plants
in their natural habitat as well as those cultivated at Rimba Ilmu (Botanic
Garden), University of Malaya were used in the study. The following is the
list of plants studied.
Erythropalum scandens Blume.
Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor; Telok Cempedak, Kuantan, Pahang
(KLU 041342, KLU 041344, KLU 141349)
Ochanostachys amentacea Masters
Rimba IImu, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur
(KLU 041331, KLU 041333, KLU 041345)
Olax psittacorum (Willd)Vahl.
Kampung Sungai Baging, Trengganu
(KLU 041337, KLU 041338)
Strombosia javanica Blume.
Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor
(KLU 041341, KLU 041340, KLU 041339)
Scorodocarpus borneensis (Baill.) Beécc.
Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, Selangor
(KLU 041045, KLU 041382, KLU 041329)
Ximenia americana L. var. americana Defilipps
Blue Lagoon, Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan
(KLU 041339, KLU 041340, KLU 041341)
Haustoria found during the study were preserved in 50% FAA (50%
ethanol:formalin:acetic acid 18:1:1) for further morphological and
anatomical investigations. They are also deposited in the University of
Malaya Herbarium (KLU). Seedlings of species not already represented in
Rimba Ilmu were brought back and grown there.
Results and Discussion
Only two of the six species of Olacaceae studied were found to be hemi-
parasitic, namely Olax psittacorum (Fig 1) and Ximenia americana vat.
americana (Fig 2).
Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae 9
Figure 1. Haustorium of Olax psittacorum invading the root of its own species.
Figure 2. Haustorium of Ximenia americana var. americana invading the root of Pongamia
pinnata.
10 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Haustoria and host
Both primary and secondary haustoria occur in Olax psittacorum and
Ximenia americana var. americana. The haustoria totally or partially encircle
the host roots depending upon whether the roots are small or large,
respectively. The haustoria of Olax psittacorum are more or less dome-
shaped while those of Ximenia americana var. americana are more flattened
and disc-like during the early stage but later become dome-shaped.
Haustoria size ranged from about 1-20mm while their colour depends on
age. In general, the haustoria darken with age. This may be due to an
accumulation of phenolic compounds.
The haustoria of both Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana vat.
americana invade the roots of other plants of their own species in the same
way that Herbert (1922) reported in Olax imbricata. This further confirms
the remark made by Corner (1988) for Ximenia americana vat. americana.
Self-parasitism probably arose out of the need to increase the efficency in
the use of limited water resource, especially when the hemi-parasites are
found in a hostile environment. In general, it appears that both species are
non-host specific judging from the number of hosts they can attack (Table
1). However, only the roots of dicotyledons are attacked by the haustoria.
Table 1: Plants invaded by the haustoria of Olax psittacorum and Ximenia
americana.
Olax psittacorum Ximenia americana
Aglaia sp. (Meliaceae) Pongamia pinnata (Leguminosae)
Tetracera sp. (Dilleniaceae) Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae)
Psychotria sp. (Rubiaceae)
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)
Anatomical sections of the haustoria of Olax psittacorum and Ximenia
americana var. americana reveal that the sucker at the distal end of the
vascular core forms a structure that is appressed to the stele of the host
roots (Fig. 3 & 4). The suckers are only connected to the xylem but not the
phloem. The location and arrangement of the conducting vascular cells in
both Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana vat. americana are essentially
similar. In Olax psittacorum, only one strand of the conducting tissue links
the host to the parasite and occupies a central position in the sucker whereas
for Ximenia americana var. americana, there exist two strands of conducting
tissue and both strands are at the periphery.
Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae Vi
Oe 5 mm
Figure 3. Cross-sectizon of the haustorium of Olax psittacorum.
H-haustorium; Hr - host root; V-vascular core; S-Sucker; T-vascular core
oe
Oe sSmm
Figure 4. Cross-section of the haustorium of Ximenia americana var. americana. H-haustorium;
Hr - host root; L-lateral root; V-vascular core; S-Sucker; T-vascular core
12 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Correlation between parasitism and habitat in Olacaceae
The occurrence of parasitism among different families and orders
demonstrates that this mode of nutrition has evolved independently many
times during the evolution of angiosperms (Nickrent and Franchina, 1990;
Fineran, 1991). Parasitism might have developed among different taxa due
to similar habitat conditions. This might occur where certain nutrients and
water were scarce, and especially under circumstances favourable for the
development of organic connections between plants (Fineran, 1991).
The two parasitic species, Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana
var. americana, thrive well in dry, sandy coastal areas while the non-parasitic
members are found in humid evergreen forest. Most hemiparasitic taxa of
the Santalales prefer somewhat open habitats with extreme conditions, e.g.
dry or harsh (Fineran, 1991). Parasitism may have arisen out of the need to
adapt in a water-deficient habitat. In fact, the dry, sandy habitat along the
coast of the Malay Peninsula supports a high number of other parasitic
plants from different famillies, namely, Champereia manillana (Opiliaceae),
Dendrotrophe spp. (Santalaceae) and Cassytha filiformis (Lauraceae).
The fact that there is only connection between the haustorium and
the xylem in both Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana var. americana
coupled with their occurrence in only dry habitats demonstrates that hemi-
parasitism is one of the adaptive features that may increase the efficiency
in the use of water. This is also found to be true in other hemi-parasites
(Pate et al., 1990a, 1900b; Fineran, 1991). However, there is no co-
relationship between type of root system and life-form with hemi-parasitism
as suggested by other workers such as Pate et al. (1990a, 1990b) and Fineran
(1991). For example, Olax psittacorum has a shallow and extensive root
system and is a scrambling shrub, while Ximenia americana var. americana
has a root system quite deeply rooted and it is a tree up to 5 m high.
Within the haustoria of root parasites, there are unusual xylem
conducting cells known as graniferous (granule-containing) tracheary
elements (Fineran, 1985). Fineran (1985) noted that the nature of the
granules in Olacaceae is not consistent and varies from protein in one
genus to starch in another. On the other hand, the nature of granules in
other families of the Santalales is very consistent. Fineran suggested that
this showed that the Olacaceae is an unnatural family and with different
treachery elements, root parasitism has arisen at least twice in the family.
Conclusion
This study shows that only some species of the Olacaceae are hemi-parasitic,
namely Olax psittacorum and Ximenia americana var. americana, and that
they are non-host specific and that self-parasitism occurs.
Root Hemi-parasitism In Malayan Olacaceae 13
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to Dr. N. Prakash, University of New England, Australia,
Dr. Noorma Wati Haron and Prof. Haji Mohamed Abdul Majid, Head of
Botany Department, University of Malaya for their comments. Thanks are
also due to Mr. Mohamed Akip and Mr. Joseph Pao for the illustrations
provided. This paper reports part of an MSc thesis submitted to the
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, which was supervised by Dr. Noorma
Wati Haron. Financial grants from Vote F 150/94 (University of Malaya)
and R & D 1-07-04-049-04 (Malaysian government) are gratefully
acknowledged.
References
Backer, C. A. and R. C. Bakhuizen van den Brink. 1965. Flora of Java. 2:
63-64.
Corner, E.J.H. 1988. Wayside Trees of Malaya. The Malayan Nature Society
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 3rd edition.
Cronquist, A. 1981. An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering
Plants. Columbia University Press, New York.
Fineran, B. A. 1985. Graniferous treachery elements in haustoria of root
parasitic angiosperms. Bot. Rev. 51: 389-441.
Fineran, B. A. 1991. Root hemi-parasitism in the Santalales. Bot. Jahrb.
Syst. 113: 277-308.
Herbert, D. A. 1922. Parasitism of Olax imbricata. Philipp. Agric. 11(1):
17-18.
Nickrent, D. L. and C. R. Franchina. 1990. Phylogenetic relationships of
the Santalales and relatives. J. Mol. Evol. 31: 294-301.
Pate, J. S., J. Kuo and N. J. Davidson. 1990a. Morphology and anatomy of
the haustorium of the root hemiparasite Olax phyllanthi (Olacaceae),
with special reference to the haustorial interface. Ann. Bot. 65: 425-436.
Pate, J.S.,S. R. Pate, J. Kuo and N. J. Davidson. 1990b. Growth, resource
allocation and the haustorial biology of the root hemiparasite Olax
phyllanthi (Olacaceae). Ann. Bot. 65: 437-449.
Whitmore, T. C. 1973. Olacaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya. 2: 299-307.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 15-35.
A Botanical Survey of Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
H.T.W. TAN!, M.F. CHOONG?’, K.S. CHUA’, A.H.B. LOO!" HAJI
SAMSURI BIN HAJI AHMAD*, E.E.L. SEAH*, ILM. TURNER? anp
J.W.H. YONG®
'School of Biological Sciences, The National University of Singapore,
Singapore 119260, Republic of Singapore
*Blk 111, Teck Whye Lane, #12-616, Singapore 680111, Republic of Singapore
‘Botanic Gardens, 1 Cluny Road, Singapore 259569,
Republic of Singapore
*35 Namly Crescent, Singapore 267550, Republic of Singapore
>Harvard University Herbaria, 22 Divinity Avenue,
Cambridge MA 02138, USA
°Environmental Biology Group, Research School of Biological Sciences,
Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University, GPO Box
475, ACT 2601, Australia
Abstract
A total of 249 wild vascular plant species (15 ferns, 1 gymnosperm, 233 angiosperms) were
collected on a succession of trips between 1991 and 1993 to the Sungei Buloh Nature Park. The
current flora includes mangrove and beach or coastal forest species but the majority are early
successionals, native and exotic weeds and species associated with cultivation. Earlier collections
from the Herbarium, Singapore Botanic Gardens, dating from the late 1880s to the early 1900s
were also included and these totalled 76 (1 club moss, 7 ferns and 68 angiosperms). The original
flora was very different and consisted mainly of lowland, or beach or coastal forest, and
mangrove species. The great change in species composition and the high number of weedy
species in the current flora reflect major man-made changes to the environment. Combining
both historical and recent collections, the wild vascular plant flora of Sungei Buloh Nature Park
totals 318 species (1 club moss, 21 ferns, 1 gymnosperm and 295 angiosperms).
Introduction
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, including Pulau Buloh, consists of 87 ha of
land (Fig. 1). A botanical survey was conducted to provide baseline
information for future reintroduction or introduction programmes.
Site
Sungei Buloh Nature Park is situated in the north-western coast of
Singapore island (N1°42’53.5" E103°43’30.8"). The proposal to set up this
park and its infrastructure was approved by the Master Plan Committee
16 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
a
—————
+
——
a
il 6
rr
o
Chal
hill
Figure 1. Maps of Singapore and Sungei Buloh Nature Park. Above left, position of Singapore
in relation to Peninsular Malaysia; above right, map of Singapore showing the position of
Sungei Buloh Nature Park; bottom, Sungei Buloh Nature Park.
on the 29th March 1990 and the park was officially opened on the 6th
December 1993.
The park is a wetland area and consists of three main parts: the
reserve proper, the Visitor Centre area and Pulau Buloh, an island north
of the reserve area (Fig. 1). The river, Sungei Buloh Besar separates the
reserve proper from the Visitor Centre. Both Pulau Buloh and the Visitor
Centre area consist mainly of mangrove as well as man-made brackish and
freshwater ponds in the reserve proper. The site was marked for
preservation by the Singapore government as it is used by large numbers
of coastal birds, including the black-crowned night-heron (Nycticorax
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore 17
nycticorax), common greenshank (Tringa nebularia), common redshank
(Tringa totanus), curlew sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea), grey heron (Ardea
cinerea), marsh sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Pacific golden plover
(Pluvialis fulva) and whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus).
History of Land Use
According to the 1890 Straits Settkement Government Gazette Reports of
the Botanic Gardens, the Sungei Buloh area was a forest reserve from 17th
April 1890 and “Consists entirely of mangrove swamp”. However, this
“area of 1,128 acres, 3 roods (sic) and 18 poles, more or less” (approximately
457 ha) ceased to be a forest reserve on 4th April 1938 (Straits Settlement
Government Gazette, 1938).
When first designated as forest reserve in 1890, the area appeared to
be entirely mangrove. Records as to when prawn and fish ponds were
constructed are not available but with the development of farms, the
mangroves were cleared. Native species were replaced by cultivated species
for consumption by the farmers or their livestock. The farms and ponds
were abandoned in 1989, when the Government took over the site, after
which time early successional and weedy species invaded the area.
Methods
The present survey consisted of collection trips made on 22nd May, 30th
August and 7th October 1991 and 27th September and 13th October 1993.
The park was divided into sectors where the collecting teams concentrated
their efforts. Representative specimens of all wild species, whether sterile
or not, were collected and made into herbarium specimens which were
deposited in the Herbarium, School of Biological Sciences, The National
University of Singapore (SINU). Specimens were identified by comparison
with descriptions in floras or recent revisions, as well as with named
specimens in the Herbarium, Singapore Botanic Gardens (SING).
Historical collections from Sg. Buloh at SING were examined.
Nomenclature and habitat data mostly follow those of Turner (1995).
Observations and Discussion
A total of 249 wild vascular plant species were collected in the survey
(Appendix 1) and included 15 ferns, 1 gymnosperm (Podocarpus
polystachyus) and 239 angiosperms.
18 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Most plants are characteristic of a highly disturbed environment.
The Sg. Buloh area presumably became highly disturbed when the prawn
and fish farms were established and the mangrove cleared and earth
excavated to create the ponds. Not much regeneration could take place as
the farmers would have to keep the mangroves out of the ponds and the
bund areas. Together with human settlement, there would be planting of
vegetable crops, fruit trees, spice, flavouring and ornamental plants.
When the government took over the site in 1989, soil was brought in
from other parts of Singapore. The latter is the most likely seed source for
the large number of exotic and native weed species, such as Ageratum
conyzoides, Kyllingia polyphylla, Panicum maximum and Pityrogramma
calomelanos. Exotic pioneer tree species include Acacia auriculiformis,
Manihot glaziovii, Muntingia calabura and Spathodea campanulata. If left
unchecked, Acacia auriculiformis may dominate those areas which are not
flooded at high tide.
Weed species considered native also make up a significant part of
the flora and include Centella asiatica, Eulophia graminea, Imperata
cylindrica and Vernonia cinerea.
Secondary forest would have developed after the clearance of the
original primary forest. Its species include A/stonia angustiloba, Melastoma
malabathricum, Trema spp. and Vitex pinnata.
The beach or coastal forest and mangrove species are probably
remnants of the original forest. Mangrove and its components include
Acrostichum spp., Bruguiera spp., Hibiscus tiliaceus and Rhizophora spp.
Species escaped or persisting from cultivation include vegetables such
as Coccinia grandis, Ipomoea batatas and Manihot esculenta, fruit trees
such as Annona muricata, Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. integer, Carica
papaya, Durio zibethinus and Psidium guajava, spice or flavouring plants
such as Murraya koenigii and Pandanus amaryllifolius, as well as ornamental
plants such as Celosia argentea, Dieffenbachia seguine, Tabebuia rosea and
Vernonia elliptica.
Based mostly on the conservation status ascribed by Turner et al.
(1995), 2 endangered species (Cassine viburnifolia and Podocarpus
polystachyus ), 6 vulnerable species, 58 rare species and 90 common species
were collected. For the exotic species, 66 are naturalized and 28 associated
with cultivation, making up about 37.8% of the total vascular plant flora.
This indicates the great disturbance in the area.
There are 12 fern families, each with only one species except for the
Pteridaceae with three, and the Polypodiaceae with two. The single
gymnosperm is Podocarpus polystachyus. Angiosperms dominate the park.
The largest ten families, in descending order are: Gramineae (25 species),
Papilionaceae (16), Compositae (15), Cyperaceae (12), Euphorbiaceae (11),
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore 19
Mimosaceae (9), Rubiaceae (9), Convolvulaceae (8), Moraceae (7) and
Verbenaceae (7). Again, weed and secondary forest species are the main
representatives of these families. Other families had six or fewer species
and 37 families had only one species each.
Appendix 2 lists the plants collected by H.N. Ridley, J.S. Goodenough,
and L.C. Corporal between 1889 and 1911. This list is by no means
representative of the whole area as they comprise opportunisitic collections
in the area. A total of 76 vascular plant species were recorded with one
club moss (Lycopodiella cernua), 7 ferns and 68 angiosperms.
The species they collected are very different from those found in the
recent survey. Of the 76, only 6 species were recollected, Excoecaria
agallocha, Gynochthodes sublanceolata, Hoya verticillata var. verticillata,
Ilex cymosa, Lygodium microphyllum and Oxyceros longiflora. Many
species previously collected are native climbers, epiphytes, lowland beach
or mangrove forest species. Beach or coastal forest species include
Asplenium macrophyllum, Dischidia benghalensis, Garcinia hombroniana,
Hoya verticillata var. verticillata and Oncosperma tigillarium.
Most climbers were not recollected except for Cayratia mollissima,
Gynochthodes sublanceolata, Lygodium microphyllum and Oxyceros
longiflora. The change in the flora reflects the change in the environment.
Tall trees would have had to be present to support the epiphytes and
climbers. Probably these were logged during land clearance and
Oncosperma tigillarium trunks were probably used for kelong poles. It is
interesting to note that the largest family in the historical collections, the
Orchidaceae with 27 species, has not a single species left today. Most
orchids are epiphytes of lowland forest or mangrove trees. All except
Bulbophyllum membranaceum and Claderia mayeriana are now extinct in
Singapore and both the surviving species are considered vulnerable to
extinction (Turner et al., 1995). At present, only the weedy, terrestrial
orchid, Eulophia graminea is present. All the epiphytic members of the
Melastomataceae are also now extinct at Sg. Buloh and Medinilla crassifolia
and Plethiandra sessiliflora are also extinct in Singapore.
Mangrove tree species are not among the earlier collections made by
Ridley, Corporal or Goodenough, thus it is difficult to confirm if mangroves
were present then. (Excoecaria agallocha is the closest to a mangrove tree
species in their collections.) They were possibly discriminating collectors
and ignored the mangrove trees, which were plentiful in other parts of the
island. Indirect evidence of the existence of mangroves are the orchid
species that were collected from the Sg. Buloh area and which are associated
with mangroves. These include Bulbophyllum concinnum, Bulbophyllum
restrepia, Dendrobium spegidoglossum, Dendrobium spurium, Eria neglecta
and Flickingeria xantholeuca, all of which are now extinct in Singapore
20 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
(Turner et al., 1995).
The name ‘Sungei Buloh’ is also very probably indicative of the
presence of bamboo (Malay, buloh). No native bamboos were collected
by past collectors or in this survey. (Bambusa vulgaris, a relic of cultivation,
was the only bamboo collected in the recent survey.) As mentioned earlier,
the past collectors may have ignored species which were common elsewhere
on the island. Bamboos also tend to be sterile most of the time because of
their generally infrequent flowering and collectors often collect only
flowering and/or fruiting material.
Based on the recent survey of Singapore bamboos by Chua, Soong
and Tan (1996) there are only four native bamboo species: Gigantochloa
ligulata Gamble, Schizostachyum gracile (Munro) Holttum, Schizostachyum
latifolium Gamble and Soejatmia ridleyi (Gamble) K.M. Wong.
Gigantochloa ligulata is a recent new record for Singapore. It is unlikely
to have grown at Sungei Buloh eighty years ago. Soejatmia ridleyi is an
inland forest species, not associated with coastal areas and is currently
found only at the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore (Chua, Soong
and Tan, 1996). Both Schizostachyum gracile and Schizostachyum latifolium
may have grown at Sg. Buloh as both are common and grow at forest
edges or riversides. Unfortunately, both are now extinct in Singapore.
Based on the conservation status ascribed by Turner et al. (1995) to
species in Singapore, of the historical collections 30 species are now extinct,
3 endangered, 9 vulnerable, 27 rare, one common and two unknown. Three
are endemic species and are found only in Singapore and Peninsular
Malaysia: Plethiandra sessiliflora, Rhopaloblaste singapurensis and
Stachyphrynium griffithii. |
In terms of diversity, the current flora appears larger. This can be
explained in two ways. Firstly, the survey was comprehensive and all
species were collected, whereas the early collectors presumably concentrated
only on the fertile material or what was of interest to them. Secondly,
many species are weeds and are the result of disturbance caused by the
prawn and fish farming and the construction of the park.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the staff of the Sungei Buloh Nature Park and National
Parks Board for their help and cooperation. We would also like to express
our appreciation to the Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens, for the
use of the herbarium facilities and to the Director, National Archives of
Singapore, for the use of maps and records. Last but not least, we would
like to express our appreciation to Chew Ping Ting, Kong Hui Ai, M.
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore pd |
Matthews and Y.C. Wee for their help in the survey and to K. S. Chua for
drawing the figure. This research was partially supported by The National
University of Singapore research grants RP 880301, RP 930325 and RP
960362.
Literature Cited
Chua, K.S., Soong, B.C. and Tan, H.T.W. 1996. The Bamboos of Singapore.
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; Singapore. pp. 1-71.
Turner, I.M. 1995. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’
Bulletin Singapore. 47: 1-757.
Turner, I.M., Tan, H.T.W., Ali bin Ibrahim and Corlett, R.T. 1995. Preliminary
status of the vascular plants native to Singapore: seed plants. In: Tan,
H.T.W., ed. A Guide to the Threatened Plants of Singapore. Singapore
Science Centre; Singapore. pp. 118-151.
Wee, Y.C. 1995. Preliminary status of the vascular plants native to Singapore:
ferns and fern allies. In: Tan, H.T.W.,ed. A Guide to the Threatened Plants
of Singapore. Singapore Science Centre; Singapore; pp.115-118.
Appendix 1. Recent collections from Sungei Buloh Nature Park. Conservation
status: C = common; N = endangered; R = rare; V = vulnerable; A = naturalized
exotic species (aliens); S = species escaped or persisting from cultivation.
PTERIDOPHYTA
Adiantaceae Blechniaceae
A. Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link; K.S. C Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f.) Bedd.;
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 506 K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC
513; M.F. Choong VC 12
Aspleniaceae
C_ Asplenium nidus L.; M.F. Choong VC 65; Davalliaceae
P.T.Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB C Davallia denticulata (Burm.f.) Mett.; I.M.
1053 Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1045
Azollaceae Dennstaedtiaceae
A Azolla pinnata R.Br. ssp. asiatica V Pteridium esculentum (G.Forst.)
R.M.K.Saunders & K.Fowler; K.S. Chua, Cockayne; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS
M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & & WYC 505; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,
J.W.H. Yong SB 3114 H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3060
22
Gleicheniaceae
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw.;
K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 504
Oleandraceae
Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.66; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 477; MF;
Choong VC 60
Parkeriaceae
Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn.;
K.S. Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3113
Polypodiaceae
Pyrossia lanceolata (L.) Farwell;
P.T.Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1056
Pyrossia piloselloides (L.) M.G.Price; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.56; I.M.
Turner & M.F.Choong SB 1095; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1037; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1097
Pteridaceae
Acrostichum aureum L.; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1033; M.F.
Choong VC 84; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong &
J.W.H. Yong SB 1033
Acrostichum speciosum Willd.; K.S. Chua,
M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3000; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 13; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 13
Pteris vittata L.; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,
H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3030
Schizaeaceae
Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R.Br; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1090
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
PINOPHYTA
Podocarpaceae
Podocarpus polystachyus R.Br. ex Endl;
P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1016; Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad $A.25
MAGNOLIOPHYTA
Acanthaceae
Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl; Haji Samsuri
bin Haji Ahmad SA.70; I.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1086; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1021; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 16
Acanthus ilicifolius L.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA.44; I.M. Turner & MLF.
Choong SB 1085
Acanthus volubilis Wall.; K.S Chua & Y.C.
Wee 487; M.F.CHoong VC 79
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson ssp.
gangetica; M.F. Choong VC 124; M.F.
Choong VC 126
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson ssp.
micrantha (Nees) Ensermu; Haji Samsuri
bin Haji Ahmad SA 43; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 516; M.F. Choong VC
55; P.T. Chew, H.S. Kong & J.W.H Yong
SB 1003
Aizoaceae
Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L.; K.S.
Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3058
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus caudatus L.; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1025
Amaranthus spinosus L.; M.F. Choong SB
2
Celosia argentea L.; M.F. Choong VC 118
Anacardiaceae
Mangifera indica L.; M.F. Choong VC 138
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
Annonaceae
Annona muricata L.; K.S. Chua & Y.C
Wee 483; Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad
SA 54
Apocynaceae
Alstonia angustiloba Migq.; K.S. Chua, M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3011
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don; KS.
Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3079
Cerbera sp.; I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong
SB 1035
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex cymosa Blume; Haji Samsuri bin Haji
Ahmad SA.71; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,
H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3061
Araceae
Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent.; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1064
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott; M.F.
Choong VC 110; M.F. Choong VC 116;
M.F. Choong VC 135
Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott in
Wiener Z. Kunst; K.S. Chua, M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3081
Pistia stratiotes L.; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee
Chere wre 3i2°0R. 5. Chuay M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3078
Araliaceae
Schefflera actinophylla (Endl.) Harms;
I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1047
Asclepiadaceae
Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr.; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 57; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1096
23
Dischidia nummularia R.Br.; K.S. Chua,
M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3050
Finlaysonia obovata Wall.; K.S. Chua, M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3004; M.F. Choong VC
123; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H
Yong SB 1055
Hoya verticillata (Vahl) G.Don var.
verticillata,; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,
H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3086
Tylophora flexuosa R.Br.; Haji Samsuri
bin Haji Ahmad SA.30; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1020; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1068
Avicenniaceae
Avicennia alba Blume; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 532; M.F. Choong
VC 84; M.F. Choong PB 7; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1013
Avicennia officinalis L.; M.F. Choong PB
1; M.F. Choong VC 77; P.T. Chew,
H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1031; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1065
Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f.; M.F.
Choong VC 115; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong
& J.W.H Yong SB 14
Bignoniaceae
Spathodea campanulata P.Beauv.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3006
Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.; M.F.
Choong VC 43; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong
& J.W.H. Yong SB 1062
Bombacaceae
Durio zibethinus Murray; M.F. Choong
VC 2; Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA
69
24
Boraginaceae
Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3013; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1080
Cordia cylindristachya (Ruiz & Pav.)
Roem. & Schult; I.M. Turner & M.F.
Choong SB 1081; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3014; M.F. Choong VC
25
Heliotropium indicum L.; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1050
Butomaceae
Limnocharis flava (L.) Buch.; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 495
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpinia crista L.; M.F. Choong PB 9;
M.F. Choong VC 33
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3037
Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3107
Senna alata (L.) Roxb.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3080; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 10
Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3069
Cannaceae
Canna indica L.; Haji Samsuri bin Haji
Ahmad SA. 20
Capparaceae
Cleome rutidosperma DC.; K.S. Chua &
WiC. Wee CRS & Wy 325: 'M.F.
Choong VC 3; M.F. Choong VC 54
A
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Caricaceae
Carica papaya L.; M.F. Choong VC 18;
M.F. Choong VC 95
Celastraceae
Cassine viburnifolia (Juss.) Ding Hou;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3054
Combretaceae
Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt; M.F.
Choong PB 4; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong &
J.W.H. Yong SB 1014; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1114
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.; M.F.
Choong VC 81; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews,
H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3029
Terminalia catappa L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3067
Compositae
Ageratum conyzoides L.; 1.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1066
Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3084
Complaya trilobata (L.) Strother.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3025
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3085; K-S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3105
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.)
S.Moore; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews,
H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3065
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H Yong SB 1008
Erechthites hieraciifolia (L.) Raf. ex DC.;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
LLM. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3016
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr.; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1058
Mikania micrantha Kunth; I.M. Turner
& M.F. Choong SB 1092; M.F. Choong
VC 7;M.F. Choong VC 10; M.F. Choong
VC 15; M.F. Choong VC 58
Pluchea indica (L.) Less.; P.T. Chew,
H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1019; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1083
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3044
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 490
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.; I.M. Turner
& M.F. Choong SB 1088
Vernonia elliptica DC.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3087
Wollastonia biflora (L.) DC.; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 37; K\S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 578;
M.F. Choong VC 22; M.F. Choong VC
57
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3031
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3071; M.F. Choong
VC 127; M.F. Choong VC 130
Ipomoea digitata L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3026
Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. ssp
brasiliensis (L.) Ooststr.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3042
Ipomoea quamoclit L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3036
Ipomoea triloba L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
25
JW) Yong SB’ 3028; P.T. Chew,
H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1042
Merremia hederacea (Burm.f.) Hallier f.
forma barbata Ooststr.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3027
Xenostegia tridentata (L.) D.F.Austin &
Staples ssp. tridentata; I.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1052
Cucurbitaceae
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3072; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3073;K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3074
Cyperaceae
Cyperus compactus Retz.; M.F. Choong
SB 0001
Cyperus distans L.f.; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1049
Cyperus javanicus Houtt.; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1028; P.T.
Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1070; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS &
WYC 478
Cyperus rotundus L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3093; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3094; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 534
Eleocharis ochrostachys Steud.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3048
Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 494
Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3095
Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl; IM.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1074
Fimbristylis littoralis Gaudich.; I.M.
26
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1039
Kyllinga polyphylla Willd. ex Kunth; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 485
Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla;
K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC
48()
Scleria levis Retz.; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee
CKS & WYC 514; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3106
Dilleniaceae
Dillenia suffructicosa (Griff.) Mart.; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 526;
Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.7; M.F.
Choong VC 113
Elaeocarpaceae
Muntingia calabura L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3068
Euphorbiaceae
Breynia reclinata (Roxb.) Hook.f.; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 21; I.M.
Turner & M.F.Choong SB 1077; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1032
Euphorbia hirta L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3075
Excoecaria agallocha L.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA.14; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA.53; I.M. Turner & MF.
Choong SB 1071; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong
& J.W.H. Yong SB 1061; P.T. Chew,
H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1017
Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) M.A.; K.S.
Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3001
Manihot esculenta Crantz; I.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1044; M.F. Choong VC
13
Manihot glaziovii M.A.; K.S. Chua &
Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 492/A
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd.; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 497;
K.S. Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3111;
M.F. Choong VC 98; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1007; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1023
Phyllanthus urinaria L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3052
Ricinus communis L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3012
Sapium discolor (Champ. ex Benth.)
M.A.; M.F. Choong VC 36
Sebastiania chamalaea (L.) M.A.; KS.
Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3017
Flagellariaceae
Flagellaria indica L.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad $A.16; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA. 59; ILM Turner & M.F.
Choong SB 1101; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee
CKS & WYC 484; M.F. Choong VC 121;
M.F. Choong VC 133
Gramineae
Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P.Beauv.:
I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1078
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl.;
M.F. Choong VC 131; M.F. Choong VC
21
Chloris barbata Swartz; I.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1075; M.F. Choong VC
101
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3023
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3024
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 482;
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1107
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 479; KS.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3091
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 527; MF.
Choong VC 132
Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E.Hubb.;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
LM. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3022;
P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong
SB 1054; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong &
J.W.H. Yong SB 1054
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv.; P.T.
Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1070; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.
Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB
3041; M.F. Choong VC 96
Ischaemum magnum Rendle; K.S. Chua,
M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3019
Ischaemum muticum L.; K.S. Chua &
Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 475; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3090
Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 474
Melinis repens (Willd.) Zizka; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3018
Mnesithea glandulosa (Trin.) Koning &
Sosaf; I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB
1069
Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 481
Panicum maximum Jacq.; 1.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1099; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3056; M.F. Choong VC
100;M.F. Choong VC 134
Paspalum conjugatum Berg.; I.M. Turner
& M.F. Choong SB 1076; K.S. Chua &
Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 529; M.F.
Choong VC 52
i
pa
Paspalum vaginatum Sw.; 1.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong $B1036; M.F. Choong VC
4()
Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult.;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
[.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3020
Saccharum officinarum L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3108
Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. var.
flaccidus (Roem. & Schult.) Veldkamp;
Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 11;
K.S. Chua, M. Mathews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3092
Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. var. major
(Biise) Baaijens; K.S. Chua, M. Mathews,
H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3021
Urochloa mutica (Forsk.) T.-Q.Nguyen;
I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1098
Guttiferae
Calophyllum inophyllum L.; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 507
Labiatae
Hyptis brevipes Poit.; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1067
Hyptis capitata Jacq.; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 511; M.F. Choong
VC 6; M.F. Choong VC 14
Ocimum tenuiflorum L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3055
Lauraceae
Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Blume;
M.F. Choong VC 1
Lecythidaceae
Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz; KS.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3088
28
Lemnaceae
Lemna perpusilla Torrey; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, ILM. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3115
Liliaceae
Cordyline terminalis Kunth; I.M. Turner
& M.F. Choong SB 1043
Loganiaceae
Fagraea fragrans Roxb.; I.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1091; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3002
Loranthaceae
Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3082
Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lout.)
Tiegh.; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.
Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB
3010
Lythraceae
Cuphea hyssopifolia Humb., Bonpl. &
Kunth; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.
Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB
3101
Sonneratia alba J.J. Smith; P.T. Chew,
H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1048
Malpighiaceae
Tristellateia australasiae A.Rich.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3083
Malvaceae
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1024
Hibiscus tiliaceus L.; M.F. Choong VC
38; M.F. Choong VC 50; M.F. Choong
VC 82
Sida acuta Burm.f.; Haji Samsuri bin Haji
Ahmad SA.31; M.F. Choong VC 20; M.F.
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Choong VC 39; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong
& J.W.H. Yong SB 15; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1063
Sida rhombifolia L.; M.F. Choong VC
31; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong
SB 15; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H.
Yong SB 1015; P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong &
J.W.H. Yong SB 1063
Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. ex
Correa; I.M. Turner & M.F. Choong SB
1079; M.F. Choong VC 46; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1011
Urena lobata L.; Haji Samsuri bin Haji
Ahmad SA.36; K.S Chua & Y.C. Wee
476; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.
Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB
3045; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H.
Yong SB 1018
Melastomataceae
Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don; I.M. Turner
& M.F. Choong SB 1046; M.F. Choong
VC 9
Melastoma malabathricum L.; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 517; MLF.
Choong VC 19
Meliaceae
Melia azedarach L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3099
Xylocarpus granatum J.Konig; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 502; MLF.
Choong PB. 8; M.F. Choong VC 75; M.F.
Choong VC 87
Mimosaceae
Acacia auriculiformis A.Cunn. ex Benth.;
Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.50;
K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC
489; M.F. Choong VC 68
Acacia mangium Willd.; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H Yong SB 1057
Adenanthera pavonina L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3100
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
Entada spiralis Ridl.; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 531
Mimosa diplotricha C.Wright ex Sauvalle;
M.F. Choong VC 5; M.F. Choong VC
111
Mimosa pigra L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3047
Mimosa pudica L.; 1.M. Turner & MF.
Choong SB 1100; M.F. Choong VC 66
Neptunia plena (L.) Benth.; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3035; M.F. Choong
VC 26
Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) I.Nielsen;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3053
Moraceae
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.; K.S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 528
Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr.; M.F.
Choong VC 8
Ficus apiocarpa Miq.;K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3103
Ficus benjamina L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3005
Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1041
Ficus grossularioides Burm.f.; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 11
Ficus microcarpa L.f.;M.F. Choong VC
108
Myricaceae
Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.; I.M.
Turner M.F. Choong SB 1034
Myrtaceae
Eugenia aquea Burm.f.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA 55
Eugenia polyantha Wight; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3098
pa)
Eugenia rugosa (Korth.) Merr.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3104
Eugenia spicata Lam.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA 58; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 509; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1010
Psidium guajava L.; M.F. Choong VC 16
Nepenthaceae
Nepenthes gracilis Korth.; K.S. Chua &
Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 496
Onagraceae
Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell;
K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC
492; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H
Yong SB 1026a
Opiliaceae
Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr.;
M.F. Choong VC 73
Orchidaceae
Eulophia graminea Lindl.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3057
Palmae
Calamus erinaceus (Becc.) Dransf.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3089
Cocos nucifera L.; M.F. Choong VC 136
Nypa fruticans Wurmb; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3008
Pandanaceae
Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, IM.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3076
Pandanus odoratissimus L.f.; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 500
30
Papilionaceae
Aeschynomene americana L.; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3015
Aeschynomene indica L.; 1.M. Turner &
M.F. Choong SB 1038
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.; M.F.
Choong VC 28
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.; M.F.
Choong VC 17; M.F. Choong VC 102
Centrosema pubescens Benth.; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3034; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3062
Clitoria ternatea L.; M.F. Choong VC 34
Crotalaria pallida Aiton; K.S. Chua &
Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 524
Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain;
K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC
508; M.F. Choong VC 122; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong S.Buloh 17;
P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong
S65 17
Derris trifoliata Lour.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA.15; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 486; M.F. Choong
VC 62; M.F. Choong VC 119; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 12; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1004
Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC.;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3110;
M.F. Choong VC 140
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.; M.F.
Choong VC 53; M.F. Choong VC 89
Erythrina variegata L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3009
Indigofera hirsuta L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3033; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 18
Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3063
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Sesbania cannabina (Retz.) Poir.; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3032; LM.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1103
Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3046
Passifloraceae
Passiflora foetida L.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA.39; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 522; M.F. Choong
VC 47
Polygaceae
Polygala paniculata L.; M.F. Choong VC
56
Pontederiaceae
Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3096
Rhizophoraceae
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.23; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.52; K\S.
Chua & Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 535;
M.F. Choong VC 30; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1012
Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Say.;
M.F.Choong PB 2; M.F. Choong VC 125;
P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong
SB 1059
Ceriops tagal (Pers.) C.B.Rob.; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1072; M-F.
Choong VC 74; M.F. Choong VC 114
Rhizophora apiculata Blume; K.S. Chua
& Y.C. Wee CKS & WYC 499; M.-F.
Choong PB 11; M.F. Choong VC 86; MF.
Choong VC 129
Rhizophora mucronata Lam.; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3007; M.F. Choong
PB 10
Rhizophora sp.; M.F. Choong VC 80
eee
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
Rubiaceae
Gynochthodes sublanceolata Miq.; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 62; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1082; P.T.
Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1002
Hedyotis dichotoma Koen. ex Roth; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1105
Morinda citrifolia L.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA.63; I.M. Turner & MF.
Choong SB 1094; K.S. Chua & Y.C. Wee
CKS & WYC 537
Oxyceros longiflora (Lam.) Yamazaki;
Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA.12
Paederia foetida L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3112; M.F. Choong VC
44: M.F. Choong VC 48; M.F. Choong
VC 49; M.F. Choong VC 59; M.F.
Choong VC 63; M.F. Choong VC 69;
M.F. Choong VC 70; M.F. Choong VC
72; M.F. Choong VC 83; M.F. Choong
VC 92;M.F. Choong VC 128
Psydrax sp. 10 of Tree Flora of Malaya
V.4; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W. H.
Yong SB 1009
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.t.;
M.F. Choong VC 78
Timonius flavescens (Jack) Baker; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1009
Uncaria lanosa Wall. var. glabrata
(Blume) Ridsdale; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3059
Rutaceae
Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.)
T.G.Hartley; K.S Chua & Y.C. Wee 525;
K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan,
I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3049
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.; I.M.
Turner & M.F. Choong SB 1109
Sapindaceae
Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.; K.S
at
Chua & Y.C. Wee 491; M.F. Choong VC
24; P.T. Chew, H.A. Hong & J.W.H.
Yong SB 1005
Sapotaceae
Pouteria obovata (R.Br.) Baehni; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1031
Scrophulariaceae
Scoparia dulcis L.; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 521; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3077
Solanaceae
Physalis minima L.; 1.M. Turner & M.F.
Choong SB 1027; K.S Chua & Y.C. Wee
501; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W.
Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB
3043; M.F. Choong PB. 12; P.T. Chew,
H.A. Hong & J.W.H. Yong SB 1027; P.T.
Chew, H.A. Kong & J.W.H. Yong SB
1030; SB 1024
Solanum nigrum L.; Haji Samsuri bin
Haji Ahmad SA.18; K.S. Chua & Y.C.
Wee CKS & WYC 493; P.T. Chew, H.A.
Kong & J.W.H Yong SB 1026
Solanum torvum Sw.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3064
Sonneratiaceae
Sonneratia alba J.J.Smith; M.F. Choong
PB 5; M.F. Choong PB 6; M.F. Choong
VC 76
Tiliaceae
Triumfetta tomentosa Bojer; I.M. Turner
93-102
Typhaceae
Typha angustifolia L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3070
a2
Ulmaceae
Trema cannabina Lour.; K.S. Chua &
Y.C Wee 579; P.T. Chew, H.A. Kong &
J.W.H. Yong SB 1029
Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3051
Umbelliferae
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.; 1.M Turner &
M.F Choong SB 1089
Verbenaceae
Clerodendron inerme (L.) Gaertn.; Haji
Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad SA. 47; M.F.
Choong VC 107; M.F. Choong VC 117;
P.T. Chew, H.A.Kong & J.W.H. Yong
SB 1001
Lantana camara L; 1.M. Turner & M.F.
Choong SB 1073; M.F. Choong VC 11;
M.F. Choong VC 23
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene; K.S. Chua,
M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner
& J.W.H. Yong SB 3040
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Premna foetida Reinw. ex Blume; M.F.
Choong VC 35; K.S. Chua, M. Matthews,
H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner & J.W.H. Yong
SB 3066
Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3039; M.F.
Choong VC 51
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl; K.S.
Chua, M. Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M.
Turner & J.W.H. Yong SB 3038
Vitex pinnata L.; K.S. Chua, M.
Matthews, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner &
J.W.H. Yong SB 3003
Vitaceae
Cayratia mollissima (Wall.) Gagnep.;
M.F. Choong VC 37; M.F. Choong VC
42
Cissus hastata (Miq.) Planch.; I.M. Turner
& M.F. Choong SB 1084
Appendix 2. Historical collections from the Sungei Buloh area. Conservation
status: C = common; N = endangered; R = rare; V = vulnerable; X = extinct; ? =
information on herbarium sheet label could not be read.
PTERIDOPHYTA
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium macrophyllum SW.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1890]
Dennstaedtiaceae
Lindsaea borneensis Hook.f. ex Baker;
J.S.Goodenough & H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan
1889]
Lindsaea parasitica (Roxb. ex Griff.)
Hieron.; J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov
1889]
Hymenophyllaceae
Cephalomanes obscurum (Blume)
K.Iwatsuki; J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov
1889]
Lycopodiaceae
Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic.Serm.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]
Polypodiaceae
Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
Schizaeaceae
Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R.Br.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]
Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw,;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]
MAGNOLIOPHYTA
Acanthaceae
Staurogyne griffithiana (Nees) Kuntze;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]
Alangiaceae
Alangium griffithii (C.B.Clarke) Harms;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]
Annonaceae
Desmos dasymachalus (Blume) Safford;
H.N.Ridley 6228 [1894]
Goniothalamus ridleyi King; H.N.Ridley
6227 [1893]
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex cymosa Blume; H.N.Ridley 5089
[1893]
Asclepiadaceae
Dischidia benghalensis Colebr.;
H.N.Ridley s.n. 9 Jan [1890]; H.N.Ridley
2729 [without date]
Hoya verticillata (Vahl) G. Don var.
verticillata, H.N.Ridley s.n. [18??]
Commelinaceae
Amischotolype gracilis (Ridl.) I.M.
Turner; H.N.Ridley s.n. [Oct 1899]
Connaraceae
Rourea fulgens Planch.; J.S. Goodenough
2027a [30 Nov 1889]
Euphorbiaceae
Excoecaria agallocha L.; H.N.Ridley 4425
[1892]
33
Flacourtiaceae
Ryparosa hullettii King; Mat s.n. [April
1894]
Gesneriaceae
Cyrtandra pendula Blume; H.N.Ridley
s.n. [1894]
Guttiferae
Garcinia hombroniana Pierre; Unknown
collector 6197 [without date]
Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lout.)
Blume; H.N.Ridley 6389 [189?]
Leguminosae
Archidendron contortum (Martt.)
I.C.Nielsen; H.N.Ridley 346? [1889]
Marantaceae
Stachyphrynium griffithii (Baker)
K.Schum.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]
Melastomataceae
Medinilla crassifolia (Reinw. ex Blume)
Blume; H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan 1890];
H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jul 1890]; H.N.Ridley
s.n. [without date]
Medinilla sp.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [without
date]
Pachycentria maingayi (C.B.Clarke)
J.F.Maxwell; H.N.Ridley 1652 [without
date]
Plethiandra sessiliflora (Cogn.) Merr.;
H.N.Ridley 2021 [9 Jan 1890]
Menispermaceae
Fibraurea tinctoria Lour.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1893]
Myristicaceae
Myristica cinnamomea King; H.N.Ridley
6266 [1894]
Myrsinaceae
Ardisia tuberculata Wall. ex A.DC.;
34
Collector unknown s.n. [4 Aug ?]
Ochnaceae
Euthemis leucocarpa Jack; L.C.Corporal
772 [18 Apr 1890]
Orchidaceae
Apostasia nuda R.Br.; H.N.Ridley s.n.
(Jan 1890]
Appendicula cornuta Blume;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]
Bulbophyllum concinnum Hook.f.;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan 1890]; H.N.Ridley
s.n. [1891]
Bulbophyllum membranaceum Teijsm. &
Binn.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1891]
Bulbophyllum — restrepia Ridl.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1889]
Claderia viridiflora Hook.f.; H.N.Ridley
s.n. [1890]
Coelogyne mayeriana Rchb.f.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [4 Aug ?];
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]
Cymbidium bicolor Lindl. ssp. pubesccens
(Lindl.) Du Puy & P.J. Cribb; H.N.Ridley —
[1891]
Dendrobium concinnum Miq.;
L.C.Corporal s.n. [18 Apr 1890]
Dendrobium lobatum (Blume) Miq.;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]
Dendrobium microglaphys Rchb.f.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1890]
Dendrobium — prostratum Ridl.;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]
Dendrobium sp.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [9 Jan
1890]
Dendrobium spegidoglossum Rchb.f.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]
Dendrobium spurium (Blume) J.J.Sm.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [1892]
Dendrobium — villosulum Lindl.;
J.S.Goodenough 369? [29 Jan 1889]
Eria floribunda Lindl.; H.N.Ridley 1634
(9 Jan 1890]
Eria neglecta Ridl.; H.N.Ridley s.n.
[1890]; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1891]
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Eria nutans Lindl.; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1890]
Eria pannea LindL.; J.S.Goodenough s.n.
[30 Nov 1889]
Eria pulchella Lindl.; H.N.Ridley s.n.
[1890]
Eria tenuiflora Ridl.; J.S.Goodenough s.n.
[1892]
Flickingeria xantholeuca (Rchb.f.)
A.D.Hawkes; H.N.Ridley s.n. [4 Aug
1890]
Galeola nudifolia Lour.; H.N.Ridley s.n.
[9 Jan 1890]
Schoenorchis micrantha
H.N.Ridley 374 [30 Nov 1889]
Thelasis carinata Blume; H.N.Ridley s.n.
[9 Jan 1890]
Trichotosia_ velutina (Lindl.) Lodd. ex
Kraenzl.; H.N.Ridley [9 Jan 1890]
Blume;
Palmae
Oncosperma tigillarium (Jack) Ridl.;
J.S.Goodenough 1663 [29 Nov 1889];
J.S.Goodenough 3145 — [1890];
J.S.Goodenough 3509 [29 Nov 1889]
Rhopaloblaste singaporensis (Becc.)
Hook.f.; H.N.Ridley 2135 [May 1890]
Pandanaceae
Freycinetia angustifolia Blume;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [30 Nov 1889]
Rubiaceae
Diplospora malaccensis Hook.f.;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]
Gardenia tubifera Wall. var. subcarinata
Corner; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1891]
Gynochthodes sublanceolata Miq.;
J.S.Goodenough s.n. [4 Aug 1890]
Hedyotis pinifolia Wall. ex G.Don;
Unknown collector 8925 [1897]
Oxyceros longiflora (Lam.) T.Yamaz.;
J.S.Goodenough 2415 [16 Sep 1891]
Prismatomeris glabra (Korth.) Valeton;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]
Psychotria penangiana Hook.f.; Corporal
2870 [18 Apr 1890]
Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Singapore
Timonius flavescens (Jack) Baker;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [without date]
Urophyllum glabrum Wall.; H.N.Ridley
s.n. [12 Jan 1890]
Sterculiaceae
Pterospermum javanicum Jungh.;
H.N.Ridley 6181 [1894]
Styraceae
Styrax benzoin Dryand. var. benzoin;
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]
bs
Vitaceae
Cayratia mollissima (Wall.) Gagnep.:
Corporal s.n. [8 Apr 1890]
Zingiberaceae
Hornstedtia leonurus (J.K6nig) Retz.:
H.N.Ridley s.n. [1911]
Hornstedtia scyphifera (J.K6nig) Steud.
var. scyphifera; H.N.Ridley s.n. [1894]
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Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 37-47.
Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora
(Euphorbiaceae)
R. Krew!, S. MADHAVAN AND HAMSAH SELAMAT
Department of Biology
Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract
Baccaurea scortechinii Hook. f. is a species distinct from B. parviflora (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg.
recognised by a combination of the following characters: greater number of pairs of veins,
proportionately wider leaf, shorter male and female inflorescences, position of the female
inflorescence on the upper part of the trunk or on the branches, short pedicel of male flowers,
longer sepals of the female flower, which are hoary outside, the rosy pink, obovoid ridged fruit
(often with a wrinkled surface), which has a thick pericarp and up to six seeds.
Introduction
Over reliance on herbarium material as opposed to field observations can
sometimes lead to erroneous results. A case in point is the synonomising
of Baccaurea scortechinii with B. parviflora (Airy Shaw, 1972).
In the field, these two species are totally distinct based on the position
of the infructescences, the colour and shape of the fruits and whether the
fruits are ridged or not. Corner (1952) described B. scortechinii as the
‘Chinese Lantern Tree’ because ‘the fruiting trees look as if they were
hung with little Chinese lanterns’. He described the fruits as being rose-
pink and six-ridged and hanging from the branches on strings. The
infructescences are also produced on the trunk but never from the base. In
contrast, the fruits of B. parviflora are smooth, purple-brown and are
produced on strings at the base of the trunk and trail in profusion on the
ground. In the field, these two species are certainly distinct!
The inability to distinguish between the two Baccaurea species with
elongate fruits and terminalia branching may in part be due to the poor
choice of characters in keys for identifying them. Thus, Pax and Hoffman
(1922) used the degree of pubescence of the young twigs, a character that
cannot be used for specimens with older twigs, which are uniformly glabrous
in both species. Ridley (1924) used leaf shape, which, while it can be used
for the extremes of variation, also shows considerable overlap. He
‘Present Address: Singapore Botanic Gardens, Singapore 259569
38 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
contributed to the confusion by adding a note to his description of B.
scortechinii stating that ‘Hooker says racemes from the branches, though
in the specimens I have seen at Kew they all appear to have been from the
stem as in B. parviflora, but B. parviflora does sometimes have racemes
from the branches’ (though this fact is not mentioned in Ridley’s description
of B. parviflora). Whitmore (1973) was of the opinion that those species
with terminalia branching ‘are extremely difficult to distinguish without
fruits because the leaves are similar, and variable, within each species’.
Based on a study of herbarium specimens, Airy Shaw (1972) reduced
B. scortechinii to synonomy with B. parviflora without giving a reason for
his decision. Whitmore (1973) followed Shaw in regarding it as a synonym
of B. parviflora but as Corner (1988) commented ‘there seems to be some
mistake’.
Baccaurea scortechinii was first described by Hooker f. based on a
single specimen (Scortechini s.n., Perak) and it has remained poorly known.
The fruit and the position of the inflorescence were not known to Hooker
but the character of number of vein pairs that he gave is useful in
distinguishing these two species (Table 1). Now that more specimens are
available, it is possible to reassess the characters that are used to separate
the two species.
Fruiting specimens of B. parviflora and B. scortechinii are readily
identified based on whether the fruits are ridged or not, their colour and
shape, and the position and length of the infructescence (Table 1).
Specimens with female flowers can be identified by flower size, indumentum
of the sepals and whether the ovary is ridged or not (but in fact have rarely
been collected) and those with male flowers by the length of the pedicel.
Sterile material can be identified by the number of pairs of veins and
also by the gestalt of the terminalia branching. In B. parviflora the distal
two or three tiers of caulomeres frequently have slender twigs of equal
thickness suggesting that they were produced by the same growth flush. In
contrast, it appears that usually only a single tier of caulomeres is produced
at a time in B. scortechinii as the distal twig is much more slender than the
adjacent proximal one. In the field, B. scortechinii has a conspicuously
narrow crown, perhaps the result of this less profuse mode of growth. The
phenology of these growth flushes is not known.
Flowering is, however, seasonal occurring in the two main flowering
seasons for trees (Kiew, 1986). Corner (1952) noted that B. parviflora
flowers gregariously after a dry spell. Most male flowering specimens have
been collected between January and April with a peak in February to
March with a few in June-July and October (specimens with female flowers
are scarce but have been collected in February to April and in September)
and fruiting specimens from May to September. B. scortechinii fruits
Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora
(Euphorbiaceae) 39
: between March and April and again in June-July and September, but
| there is insufficent flowering material to assess its flowering seasons.
Baccaurea parviflora is widespread from Burma to Borneo (where it
has rarely been collected). In Peninsular Malaysia, it has been collected
from all states and is common in the lowlands up to 1300 m altitude. It is
most frequently collected from hill slopes and ridge tops. In contrast, B.
scortechinii has been more frequently collected from forest beside streams
and rivers. B. scortechinii is endemic to Peninsular Malaysia and is more
common in Kelantan, Trengganu and Pahang.
Table 1. Baccaurea parviflora and B. scortechinii compared
Character B. parviflora B. scortechinii
bark! finely ridged not ridged
bark colour! brownish grey pale fawn
lamina length (cm) 8.5-15.5 13-18
lamina width (cm) 3-5 5-9.5
lamina I|:w ratio 2.8—-3.1 1.9-2.6
no. vein pairs (4—) 5 (-6) (6-—) 7 (-9)
male raceme length (cm) 10-15 3.5-8
male pedicel length (mm) 3-4 1-1.5
female raceme length (cm) 15-30 5.5-12
female raceme position
base of truck
trunk and branches
male & female sepal shape ovate oblong
female sepal length (mm) 2.5-3.5 8-9
female sepal indumentum
(outer surface) glabrous hoary
ovary shape cylindrical ovoid
ripe fruit colour purple brown rosy pink
fruit shape fusiform obovoid
not ridged 6-ridged
fruit apex narrowed rounded
pericarp thickness (mm) 1.5-2.0 0.5-1.1
no. seeds per fruit 1-3 1-6
'from Corner (1988). No details are available on labels of herbarium specimens to
verify this.
40 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Baccaurea parviflora
Baccaurea parviflora (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg. in DC Prodromus XV(2)
(1866) 462.
Figure 1.
Type: Wallich 7759B Tavoy, India. (K holo)
Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India. 5 (1887) 368; Pax & Hoff. Pflanzenreich. iv 147 XV
(1922) 59; Ridley Fl. Mal. Pen. 3 (1924) 243, Fig. 152; Corner Wayside
Frees: (1952) 241, Fis. 71,
Pierardia parviflora Mill. Arg. in Linnaea 32 (1863) 82.
Small tree to 15 m tall and 7.5—10 cm dbh., flowering at 2 m, with terminalia
branching with leaves clustered at the tips of the twigs, twigs slender with
long internodes and pilose, becoming glabrous with age. Bark
brownish-grey, rather closely and finely ridged. Stipules lanceolate,
pubescent outside. Young leaves pinkish. Petiole 0.75—3 cm long, grooved
above. Lamina oblanceolate, (8.5—) 12 (-15) cm long and (3-) 4 (-5) cm
wide; apex caudate, base strongly acute, margin entire, apex caudate,
glabrous above and beneath; in dried state thinly coriaceous, smooth (not
puckering); veins (4—) 5 (-6) pairs prominent beneath, tertiary veins
inconspicuous.
In male trees raceme cauliflorous in more or less upright tufts on
burrs on trunk about 3 m above the ground, sometimes on branches, 10-15
cm long, hairy. Bracts minute, broadly ovate, 0.2-0.3 mm long, densely
tomentose. Flower fragrant with a sharp lemon scent. Pedicel 3-4 mm
long. Sepals 4-5, ovate, 1.0-1.5 mm long and 0.5—1 mm wide, yellowish
green (rarely reddish brown). Stamens (3-—) 6, filaments 0.1—0.2 mm, anthers
subglobose, 0.2 mm long, yellow. Pistillode large.
In female trees, raceme cauliflorous, numerous and always at the
base of the trunk, (15—) 23 (—30) cm long. Peduncle reddish. Bracts cordate,
0.1-0.2 mm long, tomentose. Pedicel 3-4 mm long. Sepals 5, spathulate,
2.5-3.5 mm long and 0.5—1 mm wide, deep red and almost glabrous outside,
white and finely pilose inside. Ovary cylindric, 3-loculate, 1.5-2 mm long
and 1-1.5 mm wide, dark red, finely pilose. Style 0.5—1 mm long. Stigma 3,
each bifurcating and recurved, dark red.
Berry fusiform, stigma persistent, 1.25-2.75 cm long and 11.5 cm
wide, dark red turning purple brown, sour. Pericarp fleshy, smooth,
indehiscent, 13-20 mm thick. Seeds 1-3, oval, thin, 9-12 mm long, 5-6 mm
wide, aril fleshy, magenta, testa brown.
Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora
(Euphorbiaceae) 4]
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Figure 1. Baccaurea parviflora Figure 2. Baccaurea scortechinii
Anatomy of Ovary and Fruit
T.S. Ovary: (Fig. 3A, C)
Round with 3 locules, ovary wall (0.40—) 0.48 (0.55) mm thick, ovules 1 or
2 per locule. Vascular bundles 3, positioned midway in the ovary wall
opposite the locules with 2-4 minor bundles in between.
Epidermis thin, cells isodiametric (10—) 15 (—20) um wide. Trichomes
sparse, unicellular (0.15—) 0.27 (-0.3) mm long. Cortex (350-—) 430 (—500)
um thick, cells of inner layer (35—) 40 (-45) um thick. Xylem vessels small,
(S—) 8 (-10) um diameter.
T.S. Fruit: (Fig. 4A, C).
Round with 3 locules, 1-3 seeds per fruit. Pericarp fleshy (1.5—) 1.8 (—2.0)
mm thick. Arrangement of vascular bundle as for ovary.
Exocarp thin, single layered, cells (SO—) 53 (-55) um long and (20-)
23 (-25) um wide, becoming almost glabrous. Mesocarp (1.0—) 1.3 (-1.5)
mm thick; outer and central region with scattered large cells with thickened
42 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Figure 3. T.S. ovary: A Baccaurea parviflora, B B. scortechinii.
Outer layers of ovary: C B. parviflora, D B. scortechinii.
i major vascular bundle, ii minor vascular bundle, 0 ovule, t trichomes, e epidermis, | locule.
Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora
(Euphorbiaceae) 43
cellulose walls, cells in the central region larger and more numerous.
Endocarp with several layers of brachysclereids.
Distribution: Burma, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia (all states), Philippines
and Borneo.
Habitat: Lowland forest, frequently on hill slopes and ridges up to 1300 m.
Local Name: Setambun (Malay).
Notes: Earlier descriptions cited the male flowers as having up to eight
stamens but this is an error based on the inclusion of specimen King’s Coll.
3321 (K) with 6-8 stamens in B. parviflora when it does not belong to this
species as its inflorescneces are produced on the twigs.
Ridley (1924) recorded that the flowers are ‘scented like cowslips’
and Corner (1952) that when it flowers gregariously it scented the forest.
The male flowers are usually yellow but Ridley observed trees with red
flowers at Semangkok and, close by at Fraser’s Hill, crimson-flowered
trees are seen though they are less common than the yellow-flowered ones
(Kiew, 1998).
Burkill (1966) reports that the Semai in Perak use dibbling sticks of
B. parviflora because ‘they suppose, its habit of fruiting close to the ground
may ensure the hill-rice having a short straw, inhibiting it from being lanky
in growth’.
There is another (as yet unnamed) taxon with terminalia branching
and elongate fruits collected from Trengganu, which shares characters with
both B. parviflora and B. scortechinii, i.e. its fruits are ridged like B.
scortechinii but are produced on long inflorescences at the base of the tree
as in B. parviflora. It is, however, distinct from these two species in its
extremely long petioles (c. 5 cm long). The petioles of both B. parviflora
and B. scortechinii are variable in length depending on the leaf’s position
within the tuft, the shortest being about 0.75 cm and the longest 3 cm long.
Baccaurea scortechinii
Baccaurea scortechinii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India. 5 (1887) 368.
Figure 2.
Type: Scortechini s.n. Perak (K, Kew no. H/0980/88 71 - lectotype, here
chosen; L, SING iso)
Pax & Hoff. Pflanzenreich. iv 147 XV (1922) 56; Ridley Fl. Mal. Pen. 3
(1924) 244; Corner Wayside Trees. (1952) 242.
44 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Small tree to 10 m with 5-10 cm dbh, flowering at 3 m; with terminalia
branching with clusters of leaves at the tips of the twigs, twigs minutely
hirsute becoming glabrous with age. Bark pale fawn, slightly flakey, not
ridged. Stipules subulate. Petiole 0.75—3 cm long, grooved above. Lamina
oblanceolate to subrhomboid, (13-—) 14 (-18) cm long and (5-) 6 (—9.5) cm
wide; apex caudate, base strongly acute, margin entire, glabrous above and
beneath; in the dried state chartaceous and puckering along the tertiary
veins; midrib usually minutely pilose beneath, veins (6—) 7 (-9) pairs,
prominent beneath, tertiary veins conspicuous above and beneath.
In male trees raceme cauliflorous about 3 m from the ground, 3.5-8
cm long. Bracts minute, broadly ovate, c. 0.1 mm long, tomentose. Flowers
white. Pedicel 1—-1.5 mm long. Sepals 4-6, oblong, 1—-1.5 mm long and 0.5-1
mm wide. Stamens 4-5, filament c. 0.1 mm long, anthers subglobose, 0.1
mm long. Pistillode large.
In female trees, raceme slender, pendant, cauliflorous or less usually
ramiflorous but never from the base of trunk, 6.5—12 cm long. Bracts minute,
cordate, 0.1--0.2 mm long and 0.1—-0.2 mm wide, tomentose. Pedicel 2—2.5
mm long. Sepals 5, pale yellow, oblong, 8-9 mm long and 1-2 mm wide,
margin inrolled, densely tomentose inside and out. Ovary ovoid, 6-ridged
and 3-loculate, 2— mm long and 1-2 mm wide, red, densely pilose. Style
0.5—1 mm long. Stigma 3, each bifurcating and recurved.
Berry obovoid, stigma persistent, 6-ridged often finely wrinkled
between the ridges, (1.5—) 2.2 (-2.5) cm long and 1.2-1.5 cm wide, rosy
pink, sour. Pericarp fleshy, indehiscent, (S—) 8 (-11) mm thick. Seeds 1-6,
oblong, thin, 3-4 mm long and 1-2 mm wide, aril fleshy, purple, testa
brown.
Anatomy of the Ovary and Fruit
TS. Ovary (Fig, 3B, D).
Six-ridged with 3 locules, ovary wall (0.1—) 0.18 (-0.3) mm thick. Ovules 1-
2 per locule. Vascular bundles 3, positioned midway in the ovary wall
opposite the locules with 3 minor bundles in between.
Epidermal cells narrow, isodiametric (10—) 15 (—20) um wide.
Trichomes abundant, unicellular, (0.11—) 0.13 (-0.16) mm long originating
from the epidermal layer. Cortex with cells (10—) 15 (—20) um wide,
decreasing in size towards the exterior. Xylem vessels small, (5—) 8 (—10)
um diameter.
T.S. Fruit (Fig. 4B, D).
Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora
(Euphorbiaceae) 45
——<— el
o-1mm
Figure 4. T:S. fruit: A Baccaurea parviflora, B B. scortechinii.
TS. pericarp: C B. parviflora, D B. scortechinii.
i major vascular bundle, ii minor vascular bundle, b brachysclereids, e epidermis, en endocarp,
s seed.
46 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Six-ridged with 3 locules, 1-6 seeds per fruit. Pericarp fleshy (0.5-)
0.8 (-1.1) mm thick. Arrangement of vascular bundles as for ovary.
Exocarp thin, single layered, cells narrow (10-) 11 (—12) um long and
(15—) 18 (-20) um wide, becoming almost glabrous. Mesocarp (0.3-—) 0.4
(0.5) mm thick; outer and central region as for B. parviflora. Endocarp
with several layers of brachysclereids.
Distribution: Endemic to Peninsular Malaysia, most common in central
and northern regions and from Gunung Panti, Johore (not yet collected
from Perlis, Kedah, Negri Sembilan and Malacca).
Habitat: Lowland primary forest up to 200 m a.s.l., often by streams and
rivers, once from a wang in limestone (RK 3001) and the base of a limestone
cliff (Henderson 25005).
Local names: asam tamun, setambun antan (Malay).
Specimens examined: KELANTAN: Batu Boh Kiew & Anthonysamy RK
3001 (UPM), Kampung Parit Hanif & Nur SFN 10241 (SING), Kuala
Betis Ng FRI 5532 (K, KEP, SING), Whitmore FRI 5532 (L), Sungai Lebir
Henderson 29535 (SING), Stone & Mahmud 12427 (KEP), Whitmore FRI
4311 (K, KEP, L, SING). TRENGGANU: Sekayu Loy FRI 13515 (K,
KEP, L), Ulu Besut Cockburn FRI 8251 (KEP), Ulu Brang Moysey &
Kiah SFN 33866 (SING), Ulu Sungai Trengan Cockburn FRI 10581 (K,
KEP, L, SING), Wong & Khairuddin FRI 32616 (L, SING). PAHANG:
Bukit Chintamani Henderson 25005 (SING), Jeruntut Holttum 24747
(SING), Kuala Lompat Whitmore FRI 34477 (KEP, L, SING), Saw FRI
36300 (KEP, L), Kuala Tembeling Ridley s.n. (SING), Panching Ogata
10473 (KEP), Raub Kalong 20247 (KEP), Sungai Kenyam Whitmore FRI
20160 (KEP), Taman Negara (Merapoh) Soepadmo & Suhaimi S260 (L),
(Sungai Tahan) Mohd Shah & Ahmad Shukor MS2658 (L), Wyatt-Smith
KEP 71960 (K, L), Ulu Tembeling Henderson 21785 (SING), 22004 (SING).
PERAK: no locality Scortechinii s.n. (fruits, L, SING), (male flowers,
SING). SELANGOR: Kuala Pansom Gadoh KL 1324 (SING). JOHOR:
Gunung Panti Corner 29408 (SING), Kochummen KEP 99204 (KEP).
Notes: There are three sheets of Scortechini’s collections at K. The one
selected as the lectotype is his unnumbered collection, which has mature
fruits and female flowers. Of the other two sheets, Scortechini 1992 has
male flowers and Scortechinii 2002 has female flowers but no fruits. None
of Scortechini’s labels gives any information about exact locality, habitat
or position of the inflorescences.
Baccaurea scortechinii distinct from B. parviflora
(Euphorbiaceae) 47
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to S. Anthonysamy for assistance in the field and to the
curators of the herbaria of K, KEP, L and SING for permission to examine
specimens in their care and to Raoule Hagen for stimulating discussions
on the two species and for advice on extra-Malayan species.
References
Airy Shaw, H. K. 1972. The Euphorbiaceae of Siam. Kew Bulletin 26: 191-
363.
Burkill, 1H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay
Peninsula. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
Corner, E. J. H. 1952. Wayside Trees of Malaya. Government Printing Office,
Singapore. 2nd Edition.
Corner, E. J. H. 1988. Wayside Trees of Malaya. Malayan Nature Society,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 3rd Edition.
Hooker, J. D. 1887. Euphorbiaceae. Flora of British India. 5: 368.
Kiew, R. 1986. Phenological studies of some rain forest herbs in Peninsular
Malaysia. Kew Bull. 41: 733-746.
Kiew, R. 1998. The Flora of Fraser’s Hill, Peninsular Malaysia. (in press).
Pax, F. 1922. Baccaurea Section Pierardia. Pflanzenreich iv 147 XV: 48-60.
Ridley, H. N. 1924. Baccaurea. Fl. Mal. Pen. 3: 242-251 & Fig. 152.
Whitmore, T. C. 1973. Euphorbiaceae. Tree Flora of Malaya. 2: 63-67.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 49-54. 49
New Records of Plant Species from Singapore
ALI IBRAHIM, P.T. CHEw, HJ StIDEK KIAH AND JOSEPH T.K. LAI
Singapore Botanic Gardens,
Cluny Road,
Singapore 259569
Abstract
Most notable among the 28 new records of flowering plant species from Singapore are the
first record of Mukia maderaspatana (Cucurbitaceae) for both Singapore and Peninsular
Malaysia, the first record for several genera - Chonemorpha, Ichnocarpus and Kibatalia
(Apocynaceae), Gymnanthera (Asclepiadaceae) and Scaphochlamys (Zingiberaceae) and
the two dipterocarps, Dipterocarpus elongatus and Shorea ochrophloia.
Introduction
In 1994, Turner reported the flora of the vascular plants of Singapore to
number 2277 species in 868 genera and 158 families. New records (those
not listed by Turner, 1993) continue to be added and 18 of these are
already published (Turner et al. 1994, 1997).
Here we list a further 28 species. Of these, a few are previously
overlooked species, such as Hedyotis verticillata, Ichnocarpus serpyllifolius,
Piper macropiper and Xanthophyllum amoenum that were in fact collected
many years ago. Many were recorded when plots were set up in the
Central Catchment Nature Reserve (which includes the MacRitchie area
and the Nee Soon Freshwater Swamp) as part of a survey commissioned
by the National Parks Board, which was carried out in 1992 and 1993
(Wong et al., 1994). However, even a forest as well known as the Bukit
Timah Nature Reserve continues to turn up new records. Perhaps more
surprising is that some of these are large canopy trees, such as Shorea
ochrophloia, that are visible from commonly walked trails (Lum and Sharp,
1996).
All specimens cited here are lodged at SING.
New Records
Apocynaceae A/stonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don
Singapore (without locality) N. Cantley s.n. — 1880s; Pulau Sentosa
Heaslett s.n. — 29 Jan 1973, Mount Faber Sao Kyi Win 24/AmI — 16 June
1983.
50 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Also observed in Pierce Reservoir area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve.
Distribution: Indo-China and Thailand south to Sulawesi.
Apocynaceae A/stonia pneumatophora Back. ex L.G. den Berger
MacRitchie area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve Wong, Ali & Chew
15 — Aug 1994.
Also observed from Nee Soon Stream near Lorong Banir and a fine tree
with a 3.4 m girth grows in the Zoological Garden, Mandai.
Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Riouw, Borneo
and Sulawesi.
Apocynaceae Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston
Nee Soon Firing Ranges, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Joseph Lai
& Ali Ibrahim LJ 102 — 5 Nov 1996.
Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore
and Java.
Apocynaceae /chnocarpus serpyllifolius (Blume) P.I. Forster
This common, but overlooked, species was first identified by David
Middleton and Ali Ibrahim. This enabled a specimen, unnumbered and
undated (although the label indicated that it had been collected in the
1920s) that had long lain in the herbarium unidentified even to its family
(accession number 082726) to be identified. The collector is recorded as
Barnay Batto and the notes on the label read: “The leaf is used for those
who got smallpox is make into powder and with little safron is mixed with
run over the body.”
Recent collections include:
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Ali Ibrahim AI 212 — 14 September 1994;
Nura A. Karim et al. NK 255 — 14 December 1995.
Distribution: Peninsular Thailand, Sumatra, Java, Peninsular Malaysia,
Singapore, Borneo, the Philippines and Sulawesi.
Apocynaceae Kibatalia maingayi (Hook. f.) Woodson
Nee Soon, Central Catchment Nature Reserve Wong, Ali & Chew 1 — 29
Oct 1092.
Also observed from Upper Seletar Reservoir Park and Nee Soon Firing
Ranges.
Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Banka and Borneo.
Apocynaceae Urceola elastica Roxb.
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve EF. Tang & Hj. Sidek Kiah 996 — 12 Oct
1995.
Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
New Records of Plant Species from Singapore |
Asclepiadaceae Gymnanthera oblonga (Burm. f.) P.S. Green
Jurong, Science Centre Jennifer Ng s.n. - 1 April 1983; Changi Point
mangrove Ali Ibrahim AI 139 — Sept 1991; Changi (Loyang Avenue
Swamp) Joseph Lai & Samsuri LJ 282 — 25 Nov 1997.
Distribution: Thailand, Singapore, Java, the Philippines and south to
northern Australia. The characteristic habitat of this species is the landward
side of mangroves. The fact that it is not yet recorded from Peninsular
Malaysia suggests that it has probably been overlooked rather than
representing a gap in its geographic distribution.
Burseraceae Dacryodes rugosa (Blume) H.J. Lam
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Mohd Shah & Samsuri MS 3893 — 5 Suly
1976.
Distribution: S. Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, W. Java and
Borneo.
Cucurbitaceae Gymnopetalum integrifolium (Roxb.) Kurz
Singapore Quarry, Bukit Timah. Ali [brahim & S.C. Chin AI 241 — 2 Sept
1994.
Distributiopn: W. India to Indo-China and south to Java.
Cucurbitaceae Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.J. Roem.
Khatib Bongsu (secondary vegetation) E. Tang & Hj. Sidek Kiah 1306 —
23 Feb 1998.
There is a single specimen from Malaysia, /.G. Reed s.n. — 7 April 1941,
from Bagan Datoh, Perak. Apparently it is an incidental introduction from
southern India as Reed records its name in Tamil as Masu masukai.
Distribution: India south to Australia.
Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus elongatus Korth.
McRitchie Reservoir, Central Catchment Nature Reserve J. Sinclair SFN
40673 — 14 July 1955, 7.C. Whitmore 66 — 14 Feb 1957; Mandai, Central
Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 2 — 16 Nov 1992.
Distribution: E. Sumatra, E. Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea ochrophloia Strugnell ex Symington
Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Ali Ibrahim et al. AI 24 — 7
July 1994.
Also observed from the MacRitchie area and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.
Distribution: W. Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
Euphorbiaceae Aporosa miqueliana Mull.Arg.
Upper Pierce area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew
4 — 14 Oct 1992.
Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
52 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea brevipes Hook. f.
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. E. Tang & Hj. Sidek 1040 — 9 Nov 1995,
1292 — 23 May 1996.
Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.
Euphorbiaceae Trigonostemon villosus Hook. f.
Mandai, next to Mandai Columbarium. Joseph Lai & Ali Ibrahim LJ 22 —
11 Dec 1995; Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Joseph Lai &
Ali Ibrahim LJ 80 — 15 Oct 1996.
Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia (south from Perak and Trengganu) and
Singapore.
Guttiferae Garcinia maingayi Hook. f. var. stylosa King
Both the species and variety are new records for Singapore.
Seletar, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 6 — 21
ec t992.
Distribution: This variety is confined to Peninsular Malaysia (Perak and
Johore) and Singapore.
Leguminosae /ntsia palembanica Miq.
In Singapore, this species is represented by a majestic individual on the
summit of Bukit Timah Hill, identified by Ali Ibrahim.
Distribution: Thailand to W. New Guinea.
Meliaceae Aglaia leucophylla King
Mandai, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 9 — 23
Nov 1992.
Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo and _ the
Philippines.
Meliaceae Aglaia malaccensis (Ridl.) Pannell
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Liew SFN 37278 — 4 July 1941; MacRitchie
area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 17 — Oct
1992; Bukit Kallang, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Joseph Lai &
Ali Ibrahim LJ 94 — 29 Oct 1996.
Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.
Meliaceae Chisocheton sarawakanus (C. DC.) Harms
Mandai, Cantral Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 10 — 23
Nov 1992.
Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Banka and Borneo.
Pandaceae Galearia maingayi Hook. f.
Botanic Gardens Jungle E.J.H. Corner SFN 32519 — 16 Nov 1936; Bukit
Timah Nature Reserve E.J.H. Corner SFN 33588 — 6 July 1937, SFN
New Records of Plant Species from Singapore oo
36410 — 25 April 1939.
Distribution: Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo.
Piperaceae Piper macropiper Pennant
Bukit Mandai Nangchi s.n. — 19 April 1887; Krangi Forest Reserve J.S.
Goodenough s.n. — 8 April 1890; Tuas J.S. Goodenough 4684 — 29 May
1890; Chan Chu Kang H.N. Ridley 6153 — 1894, s.n. — Feb 1896; Bukit
Timah Nature Reserve Chew W.L. 1442 — 30 May 1967; Nee Soon Firing
Ranges, Central Catchment Nature Reserve Joseph Lai LJ 99 — 5 Nov
1996.
Distribution: India and Sri Lanka, south to New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands.
Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum amoenum Chodat
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve E.J/.H. Corner s.n. — Nov 1943; McRitchie
area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Wong, Ali & Chew 12 — 17
Sept 1992.
Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Riouw and Borneo.
Rubiaceae Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst. var. asiatica (Cham. & Schltdl.)
Fosberg
Fort Canning Park Ali Ibrahim & Saifuddin AI 279 — 17 March 1998.
This species is quite widespread in Singapore and populations are known
from Fort Canning Park, Makeway Avenue, Mount Emily Park and Pearl’s
Hill City Park.
Distribution: Indo-Malaya and China, south to Peninsular Malaysia,
Singapore and Java.
Rubiaceae Hedyotis verticillata (L.) Lam
Chua Chu Kang Ridley s.n. — Feb 1894; Sultan of Johore’s Land, Tanglin
Joseph Lai LJ 114 — 12 Dec 1996.
Distribution: India to Java.
Sapindaceae Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh.
Mandai Road, Track 7 Joseph Lai LJ 181 — 11 Feb 1997.
Also observed from MacRitchie area, Central Catchment Nature Reserve.
Distribution: Africa to New Guinea.
Sterculiaceae Prerospermum lancifolium Roxb.
Singapore (locality and collector unknown) Accession No. 075943, 075944
— 1880s; Fort Canning Road Ridley s.n. — 1902, Joseph Lai LJ 180 — 10
Jan 1997.
Distribution: India (NW Himalayas), Myanmar, Thailand and Peninsular
Malaysia. Singapore appears to be the southernmost locality for this species.
54 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Zingiberaceae Scaphochlamys tenuis Holttum
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve H. Kennedy & E.P. Tay 4462A — 16 Aug
1983.
Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia (previously known only from the type
collection from Trengganu) and Singapore.
This is the first record of the genus Schaphochlamys from Singapore and
was identified by Kai Larsen. Another plant with the same number (4462B)
was tentatively identified by Kai Larsen as Schaphochlamys aff. breviscape
Holttum but this has yet to be confirmed.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Ruth Kiew for help in writing this paper.
References
Lum, S. and I. Sharp (eds). 1996. A View from the Summit. The Story of
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Nanyang Technical University Singapore,
National University Singapore and National Parks Board Singapore.
Turner, I.M. 1993. The names used for Singapore plants since 1900. Gardens’
Bulletin Singapore. 45: 1-287.
Turner, I. M. 1994. The taxonomy and ecology of the vascular plant flora
of Singapore: a statistical analysis. Botanical Journal Linnean Society.
114: 215-227.
Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan and K.S. Chua. 1994. Additions to the flora of
Singapore, II. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 42: 131-135.
Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, E.E.L. Seah, A.H.B. Loo and Ali Ibrahim.
1997. Additions to the Flora of Singapore, III. Gardens’ Bulletin
Singapore. 49:1-5.
Wong, Y.K., P.T. Chew and Ali Ibrahim. 1994. The tree communities of
the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin
Singapore. 46: 37-78.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 55-100.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae
A.H.B. Loo AnD H.T.W. TAN
School of Biological Sciences, The National University of Singapore
10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260.
Major references: R.Br. in M. Flinders, Voy. Terra austral. 2 (1814) 550;
R.S. Cowan in Polhill & Raven (eds.) 1(1981) 57-64; L. Watson & Dallwitz,
Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 95 pp.; Ding Hou, K. Larsen & S.S.
Larsen, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 409-730.
Caesalpinioideae Kunth
Trees, lianas or herbs to shrubs; evergreen or deciduous, armed
(Caesalpinia) or not, rarely tendrilled (Bauhinia); sometimes buttressed
(Koompassia, Intsia). Leaves simple, pinnate or bipinnate; alternate;
petiolate; pinna and pinnules usually stalked, stipleless; extrafloral glands
sometimes present on leaves (/ntsia) or leaf-axes (Chamaecrista, Senna);
stipules paired, usually caducous. /nflorescence a raceme or panicle, singly
or in fascicles; axillary, terminal on branches, or cauliflorous. Flowers
usually bisexual, rarely unisexual (Caesalpinia bonduc), zygomorphic,
usually 5-merous except for the gynoecium, perigynous; sepals (4-)5, usually
free, rarely connate to form a calyx tube, usually imbricate; petals 5,
sometimes reduced to (1-) 4 or absent (Dialium), imbricate, the adaxial
petal overlapped by lateral petals (when these are present), often clawed,
often unequal; stamens 10, or through reduction 9, 7—2, or in female flowers
absent, filaments free or basally connate, anthers basi- or dorsi-fixed, often
versatile, longitudinally dehiscent or by apical (and basal) pores; ovary 1-
loculate, with lor few to many anatropous ovules often superposed in 2
rows on either side of the adaxial suture, usually flattened, stipitate to
sessile; style often recurved, short or long; stigma capitate or peltate, large
to indistinct; hypanthium usually cupular, + oblique, short. Fruit a legume,
drupe (Dialium) or samara (Koompassia); legume compressed, oblong to
linear, indehiscent or not, valves chartaceous, coriaceous or woody; drupes
and samaras, indehiscent, rarely with pulp (Dialium), glabrous, pubescent
to spinescent. Seeds 1-many per legume, varying in shape, often flattened,
exendospermous; testa membraneous, coriaceous or crustose, rarely areolate
(Senna), rarely arillate (Sindora); cotyledons fleshy or foliaceous, radicle
straight.
56 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Distribution — Predominantly tropical group of c. 160 genera with c.
2000 spp. (Hou ef al., 1996). In Singapore, there are 10 genera with 20 spp.
Ecology — Wide range of habitats including primary and secondary
forest, coastal beach forest, mangrove, wasteland, abandoned villages and
farmland.
Uses — See under species.
Notes — This family has traditionally been treated as a subfamily
(Caesalpinioideae) of the family Leguminosae (e.g., Bentham (1865),
Taubert (1894), Whitmore (1973) and Corner (1988) but here treated as a
family in agreement with Cronquist (1981) and Hou et al. (1996). The
primary reason is the distinction between three basic groups within the
legumes sensu lato is clear. Moreover, in this treatment no emphasis is laid
on the borderline Dimorphandra group sensu Polhill and Vidal (between
Mimosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae) and tribe Swartzieae (between
Caesalpiniaceae and Papilionaceae) as they are not found in Singapore.
Key to the Genera
la. Leaves simple; lamina bilobed with an apical sinus a quarter to a third
of the lamina length, venation palmate; tendrilled .............. Bauhinia
1b. Leaves pinnately compound; pinna or pinnule lamina margins entire,
venation pinnate; mot tendriled? 2.3 20005,0.5.00i. ae ee 2
Bl CAVES WHDUITIALE Boones cc yp acesdeie<sndacenesaivenqeaccedescu.Ue ase nena eee le
ZRy MAVES PORUNARE lee cea ccesrreiccen yes ciabees cates benspeupaceapnedaes eae Eee ~
3a. Prickly climbers (rarely shrubs or trees). Lowermost sepal mostly
cucullate. Stigma small, as wide as the style................... Caesalpinia
3b. Unarmed trees. Lowermost sepal unmodified. Stigma large, peltate
sistant ig apace forbes te LPR Medes tei eee el Ma pea ene Peltophorum
MAS OL AVES TAT RNIN eT otis asad coon otic aedan cee te eed lente eee 5
AD > SiCAVES. PALIQUINGS nels teeseonek seach eigsoteveepeneessnssucsesscoxt atone ey eee 6
5a. Midrib minutely puberulous above. Petals 5. Fruit a samara
SEN ESSA HOPE MASE TAADH ep N able ch tcyslib al boiN) Ubi fyi a laid nso gac Koompassia
5b. Midrib glabrous above. Petals absent. Fruit a drupe ......... Dialium
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae ay.
6a. Trees. Legumes oblong, orbicular or subglobose, 1—6-seeded........ i
6b. Herbs to shrubs. Legumes long and narrow, >10-seeded................ e)
7a. Pinnae unequal, lowermost pair if present usually very much smaller.
Petals (4-)5. Legume subglobose, deeply rugose ............. Cynometra
7b. Pinnae + equal, lowermost pair not markedly smaller than the others.
Petal! Lepume flattened) smooth: or spinescent :.../.......100...0ce.. 8
8a. Pinnae with a thickened marginal nerve. Fertile stamens usually 9,
basally connate into a hirsute sheath. Legume elliptic to orbicular.
Be ae ea Lt eget ee tee Ue ca, sic de vsncbnmladelUeend devsloaesaptbaccees Sindora
8b. Pinnae without a thickened marginal nerve. Fertile stamens 3(-4),
ime eocamnc oplong: | Scedsvexarillate .:1.)2/./i side euacli.. Intsia
9a. Pinnae linear or falciform, sessile. Anther-thecae ciliate along the
sutures. Legume elastically dehiscent, valves coiling «0.0... eee
Me eee hE A AOE Waki ccascavncs caky eionedioouee<oseyehs Chamaecrista
9b. Pinnae (oblong-)elliptic, ovate or obovate, stalked. Anther-thecae
glabrous. Legume either indehiscent or dehiscent through 1 or both
une taniecrens WUUV er TAO COMIN ae riick. saa bredelecsondedlina stab elicccseorae Senna
Bauhinia L.
Sp. pl. 1 (1753) 374; DC., Prodr. 2 (1825) 512; R.P.Wunderlin, K. Larsen &
S.S. Larsen, Biol. Skr. danske Vidensk Selsk. 28 (1987) 18; Watson &
Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 12, 47.
Bauhinia subg. Phanera sect. Phanera (Lour.) Wunderlin, Larsen &
Larsen
Phanera subg. Phanera sect. Meganthera de Wit
Tendrilled lianas; stem dbh <15 cm, young branches brownish
pubescent, later glabrous. Leaves simple; lamina bilobed, palmately nerved,
glabrous above, mucronate; petiole brownish pubescent; stipules ovate,
falcate, puberulous, caducous. Raceme terminal or axillary, axis rusty brown
to silvery pubescent. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, alternate; bracts
lanceolate, early caducous; bracteoles linear, early caducous; calyx 5-lobed,
sepals longer than the hypanthium, rusty brown or silky white pubescent
outside; petals 5, shortly clawed, subequal, standard smaller with a hairier
claw; stamens 3, staminodes 2-3, anthers dorsifixed and versatile, dehiscence
58 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
longitudinal; ovary densely pubescent, stipitate; style widened just before
the peltate and capitate stigma; hypanthium long tubular with an orifice
near the standard; flower buds oblong-apiculate. Legume tardily dehiscent,
valves woody. Seeds ellipsoid to orbicular, flat with short funicular aril-
lobes.
Distribution — Bauhinia s. l. has about 300 spp. all over the tropics
with 69 spp. in Malesia and the section Phanera sensu Wunderlin, Larsen
& Larsen has about 60 spp. in South and South-east Asia (Larsen and
Larsen, 1996). In Singapore there is only one indigenous species.
Ecology — Lianas in primary and secondary forests, also in freshwater
swamps; fringing the forests or along trails and streams.
Uses — Various Bauhinia spp. are used as ornamental trees (B.
purpurea L., B. variegata L.), shrubs (B. acuminata L.) or climbers (B.
kockiana Korth.).
Notes — In the past, some authors split Bauhinia s. |. into several
distinct genera (e.g., de Wit (1956) who recognized 7 genera) as this large
genus included a wide range of habits like lianas, shrubs or trees. More
recently, Larsen & Larsen (1996) studied the genus throughout its
distribution and found it to be a natural group with a reticulate pattern of
variation. Bauhinia ferruginea vat. griffithiana (A.H.B. Loo & T.M. Leong
ALoo 064) was found near the Visitors’ Centre of Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve. Although it is not considered a native or naturalized species in
Singapore, it regenerates within the vicinity of adult plants; so its distribution
in Singapore should be monitored over time to see if this species becomes
naturalized.
1. B. semibifida Roxb. ex Roxb. var. semibifida
Fl. Ind., ed Carey, 2 (1832) 330; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900)
75; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 627; de Wit , Reinwardtia 3 (1956)
465; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; H. Keng, Concise FI.
Singapore (1990) 32; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore
natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45
(1993) 118; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 294; Ding Hou,
K. Larsen & S.S. Larsen, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 492.
Phanera semibifida (Roxb.) Benth.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 59
COO TT
ye a
"
Figure 1. Bauhinia semibifida Roxb. ex Roxb. var. semibifida. a. Inflorescence; b. Split legumes
with valves open and separate showing seeds; c. Flower bud; d. Top view of flower; e. Left,
leaf from a flowering branch (abaxial); right, leaf from a vegetative branch (adaxial); f. Left,
complete half-flower; right - mature standard petal having turned yellow from white. (Each
interval on scale bar equivalent to 1 mm). (A.H.B. Loo, A. Ibrahim, E.E.L. Seah & J. Lai
A.Loo 084)
60 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Young branches brownish pubescent. Laminas orbicular, 4-9 cm
across, chartaceous, 11-nerved, brownish pubescent below, apical sinus a
quarter to a third the lamina length, tips obtuse to subacute, base cordate;
petiole 1-5 cm long, pubescent; stipules c. 2 by 1 mm. Raceme to 45 cm
long, rusty tomentose. Flowers fragrant; sepals 5, reflexed, lanceolate, c. 2
cm long, caducous; petals 5, white turning yellow, oblanceolate with a
short claw, 20-40 by 8-13 mm, claw and the base of the midrib puberulous;
stamens 3, filaments white, 1—2.5 cm long, anthers dorsifixed, versatile, c. 1
cm long; staminodes to 1 cm long; ovary 2-4 cm long, silky tomentose,
stipitate; stigma, white-green, c. 1 cm long; receptacle tubular; pedicel 2-5
cm long. Legume flat, oblong, c. 10 by 4cm. Seeds 4-6 per legume, flat,
hilum seven eighths the seed circumference.
Distribution — Singapore: fairly common; Botanic Gardens’ Jungle,
Bukit Kallang, Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Clementi Road;
previously found in Bukit Mandai, Bukit Timah. Sumatra, Peninsular
Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines, Celebes (Larsen and Larsen, 1996). The
most widespread species of the genus.
Ecology — Forest edge and streams; flowering in June to July,
October to December. Legumes reach maturity about one month after
flowering. Ants are attracted to the secretions from the flowers and
Lepidopteran larvae were observed on the peltate stigma which had a
clear sticky secretion. Dispersal is by explosion and torsion of the legumes
(Ridley, 1930).
Uses — Pounded roots are used as a treatment for veneral disease
(de Wit, 1956).
Notes — There are five other varieties occurring in Malesia (four in
Borneo and one in the Philippines). Throughout its distribution, var.
semibifida is distinguished from the others in having a long tubular
hypanthium dilated at the base (versus a short, uniformly wide hypanthium)
, leaves on flowering shoots 4-11 cm across (versus leaves 11-18 cm across)
and the apical sinus 1/4—-1/2 the leaf length (versus a deep apical sinus
more than 1/2 the leaf length).
Caesalpinia L.
Sp. pl. (1753) 380; Gen. pl. ed. 5 (1754) 178; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974)
1-69; Polhill and Vidal in Polhill and Raven (eds.), Adv. Leg. Syst. 1
(1981) 93.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 61
Cinclidocarpus Zoll.
Guilandinia L.
Mezoneuron Dest.
Poinciana L.
Lianas or half-climbers, armed with recurved or straight prickles.
Leaves bipinnate; rachis armed with paired prickles below the insertion of
pinnae and pinnules with scattered ones in between; pinnae opposite;
pinnules opposite, alternate or rarely subopposite, sessile or subsessile.
Inflorescence a raceme or panicle (raceme of racemes); axillary, terminal
or rarely supra-axillary; bracts mostly caducous; bracteoles absent. Flowers
usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual, zygomorphic; sepals 5, free or
connate, subequal, lower one usually cucullate; petals 5, yellow, orange,
pink or rarely green, usually spathulate, clawed, unequal, standard differing
in shape and size; stamens 10, free, equal or alternately narrow and wide,
anthers dorsifixed and longitudinally dehiscent; ovary flat, sessile or
subsessile; style + curved upwards, slender; stigma usually as wide as the
style; hypanthium oblique, cupular; pedicels sometimes articulated.
Legumes usually smooth or sometimes armed with spines, winged along
the dorsal suture or not, dehiscent or not. Seeds 1-8 per legume, orbicular
to oblong, flat or globose.
Distribution — Pantropical genus with 18 indigenous species found
all over Malesia (Hou, 1996a). Four indigenous species are found in
Singapore.
Ecology — The Singapore species are found in beach forest and
back-mangrove or further inland, in primary or secondary forests along
trails or near streams.
Uses — See under individual species.
Notes — Recurved prickles may be set on top of woody triangular
knobs in old stems for C. crista (Fig. 2) and C. sumatrana.
Key to Species
la. Stipules pinnatifid, large, each lobe orbicular to 2.5 cm across; pinnae
prolonged to ac. 5 mm long mucro. Branches pubescent, armed with
straight and recurved prickles. Flowers unisexual (in male flowers,
carpel rudimentary, 1-2 mm long; in female flowers anthers without
1b.
2a.
2b.
3a.
3b.
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
pollen); ovary densely spiny; petals green-yellow; style pubescent.
Legumes densely spiny, pubescent, dehiscent. Seeds with lines
concentne about the tilt (2.0020.5, 202.0... eee 1. C. bonduc
Stipules simple and triangular, minute or absent, c. 1 by 1 mm; pinnae
not prolonged into a mucro. Branches glabrous, armed only with
recurved prickles. Flowers bisexual, ovary inermous; bracts
inconspicuous or early caducous, 1-2 mm long, straight, not longer
than bud; petals orange, pink or yellow; style glabrous or only sparsely
puberulous basally. Legumes inermous, glabrous, indehiscent. Seeds
without concentric lines’.....4/..0.0.25 QAR ee 2
Pinnules sessile, 2-6 mm wide, linear, base oblique and truncate,
tapering to a point or a minute mucro on the distal side, in 12-30 pairs
per pinna, membranous; rachis pubescent, 30-—45(—70) cm long.
Branchlets lenticellate. Petals orange. Legumes often twisted, base
rounded. Seeds subglobose, c. 10 mm across .............. 4. C. tortuosa
Pinnules with a 2-4 mm long stalk, 10-50 mm wide, elliptic or ovate-
elliptic or oblong, base cuneate, not tapering on any side, in 1-6 pairs
per pinna, subcoriaceous to coriaceous; rachis glabrous, 10—30 cm long.
Branchlets without lenticels. Petals yellow or pink. Legumes not
twisted, base cuneate: Seeds flat, c. 1-5 mmthick 2.2) 2.2 eee 3
Pinnules alternate (but topmost pair often opposite), in 3-6 pairs per
pinna, widely elliptic to oblong, dull above, sometimes puberulous
below, apex retuse or rounded; pinnae in 4-8 pairs. Petals pink;
sepals connate to a campaniform calyx tube. Legumes chartaceous,
winged dorso-longitudinally (c. 1 cm wide), 10 cm long or more, apex
rounded or hooked. Seeds 1-8 per legume, clearly outlined on the
surface of the legume. Ovary glabrous, slightly falcate; filaments
laterally compressed, alternately a narrow and wide one, glabrous or
puberulous: basally... 2.04.06 cae Se ee eee 3. C. sumatrana
Pinnules opposite, in 1-3 pairs pairs per pinna, elliptic to ovate elliptic,
shiny above, glabrous on both surfaces, apex obtuse, acute or
acuminate; pinnae in 2-4 pairs. Petals yellow; sepals free, not forming
a calyx tube. Legumes woody, not winged, 7 cm long or less, apex
beaked. Seeds 1(—2) per legume, not outlined on the surface of the
legume. Ovary puberulous, straight; filaments terete, pubescent to
MDOVE TS MUONS 4 ins) Oa ierdnvietio ies cd idetenols Canee ee s 2. C. crista
1. C. bonduc (L.) Roxb.
Fl. Ind., ed. Carey, 2 (1832) 362; L., Sp. pl., (1753) 381; Ridl., Fl. Malay
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 63
Penins. 1 (1922) 649; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 17; H. Keng, Gdns’
Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; K. Larsen, S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal, FI.
Thailand 4 (1984) 72; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 32; I.M.
Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19
(1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 118; I.M. Turner,
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 295.
Half-climbers to 15 m long. Leaves: rachis 15-80 cm long; pinnae in
3-9 pairs, 8-18 cm long; pinnules in 5-10 pairs per pinna, opposite or
rarely subopposite, elliptic-oblong, 2—5.5 by 1-2 cm, pubescent to glabrous,
apex mucronate, stalk 1-2 mm long. Panicle supra-axillary or terminal,
12-60 cm long, pubescent. Flowers: sepals ovate, equal or rarely subequal,
7-9 by 3-4 mm, pubescent; standard petal: limb reflexed, with red patches,
4-5 by 3-4 mm, claw 34 by 1-2 mm, other 4 petals: spathulate, 8-10 by 3-
4 mm (including c. 2 mm long, woolly claw); stamens 6-10 mm long (in
female flowers 5-6 mm long staminodes), lower half woolly, anthers c. 1
mm long; ovary c. 3 by 2 mm; style 3-4 mm long; stigma ciliate; pedicel 4—
5 mm long, articulated. Legume oblong, 6.5—9 by 3.5-4.5 cm, stipitate to 6
mm long, remnant style c. 10 mm long. Seeds 1-2 per legume, grey, globular,
1.5—2 cm across.
Distribution — Singapore: only two plants known; Pulau Sakijang
Pelepah (extreme South), Pulau Semakau (North-west). Previously found
in East Coast Park beach, Pulau Senang (South-east side). Pantropical; in
Malesia all parts, but distinctly scarce in the rain forests of Sumatra, Borneo,
the Philippines and western New Guinea (Hattink, 1974).
Ecology — Coastal, beach forest and back-mangrove to inland, in
secondary forests. Flowers and fruits can occur together without periodicity.
Legumes dispersed by floating in the sea (Ridley, 1930).
Uses — The seeds are used as an anthelminthic, vermifuge, chewed
for coughs or eaten for stomach trouble as well as for curing gout (Burkill,
1935). The attractive, hard seeds are used ornamentally as beads in
necklaces, rosaries and also used as marbles (Rudd, 1991), hence the name
“grey knicker” which refers to the game of marbles played by children. In
Somoa and Tonga, the prickly stems, attached to a stick are used to snare
fruit bats (Whistler, 1992).
2. C. crista L.
Sp. pl. (1753) 380; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., FI.
64 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
“MA
Net SON os
\ : a oF “ss
od recente %
. - Sa x ills sapere OM AE Ry, OP % ug
<7 ma’ eS a te
Figure 2. Caesalpinia crista L. Stem showing characteristic recurved prickles set on top of
corky knobs.
Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 650; Sinclair, Gdns’. Bull., Singapore 14 (1953) 32;
Backer & Bakh. f,, Fl. Java 1 (1964) 545; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 20;
H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; K. Larsen, S.S. Larsen &
J.E. Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4 (1984) 70; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990)
32; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18
& 19 (1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 118; I.M.
Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 295.
Caesalpinia nuga (L) Ait-f.
Lianas to 15 m long; branchlets glossy. Leaves: rachis 10-30 cm long;
pinnae 3.5~9 cm long; pinnules opposite or rarely subopposite, 2—12.5 by
1-5 cm, subcoriaceous, base cuneate or rounded; petiolules 2-4 mm long;
stipules, triangular, c. 1 by 1 mm, caducous. Panicle axillary or terminal,
15-40 cm long; bracts c. 1mm long, caducous. Flowers: sepals unequal, 7-8
by 2-3 mm (lowest one cucullate); standard petal: limb reflexed, orbicular,
c.5 mm across, claw c. 5 by 2 mm, pubescent, other 4 petals: obovate, 8-10
by 5-6 mm (including c. 2 mm long pubescent claw); stamens 10-14 mm
long, anthers c. 1 mm long; ovary c. 5 by 2 mm; style c. 8 mm long,
glabrous; stigma ciliate; pedicel 5-15 mm long, articulated c. 1 mm below
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 65
Figure 3. Caesalpinia crista L. a. Fruiting branch; b. Legume with one side removed to show
seed (Tanaka, Chen & Boo A.Loo 005); c. Isolated carpel on hypanthium; d. Isolated stamen
(SING 078418); m. Side view of flower; n. Standard petal (After Verdcourt, 1979). Caesalpinia
sumatrana Roxb. e. Winged legume; f. Seed; g. Alternate pinnules of a pinna (H. N. Ridley
2105); h. Isolated falcate ovary (Mat 6028). Caesalpinia tortuosa Roxb. i. Legume; j. One pair
of sessile pinnules; k. Isolated stamen; |. Isolated carpel on hypanthium. (King’s Collector
L10014).
66 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
the flower. Legume green turning brown, subelliptic or rhombic, flat, 4~7
by 3-4 cm, smooth, veined. Seeds brown, orbicular to reniform, 2—2.5 by
1.5—2 by 0.5-1 cm.
Distribution — Singapore: fairly common; Pulau Sakijang Pelepah,
Pulau Semakau (West), Pulau Tekong, Pulau Tekong Kechil, Pulau
Terkukor, Sembawang Road end, Sungei Buloh Nature Park, Sungei
Mandai Kechil (Kampong Fatimah), Western Catchment Area; previously
collected in Jurong, Kranji. Coastal parts of South-east Asia from India to
the Ryuku Islands, Australia (Queensland), Palau Island, New Caledonia;
all over Malesia except East Sumatra and East Borneo (Hattink, 1974).
Ecology — River banks, sandy beaches, in back-mangrove and its
fringes. Mature plants may have stems to c. 10 cm thick that are covered
by triangular woody knobs with recurved prickles set at the tip (Fig. 2).
Periodicity for flowering and fruiting not found (Hattink, 1974). Legumes
dispersed by floating (Ridley, 1930).
Uses — As for C. bonduc.
3. C. sumatrana Roxb.
Fl. Ind., ed. Carey 2 (1832) 366; Baker in J.D. Hook., Fl. Brit. India 2
(1879) 259; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., Fl. Malay
Penins. 1 (1922) 647; Backer & Bakh. f,, Fl. Java 1 (1964) 546; Hattink,
Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 55; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J.
Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull.,
Singapore 27 (1974) 262; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1991) 36; I.M.
Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993).118; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull.,
Singapore 47 (1995) 295; Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 553.
Mezoneuron sumatranum (Roxb.) W. & A. ex Mig.
Climbers to 20 m long; branchlets glossy. Leaves: rachis 16-20 cm
long; pinnae 6-15 cm long; pinnules 2-7 by 1—5.5 cm, subcoriaceous, apex
sometimes shortly mucronate, base cuneate to rounded; petiolules 2-4 mm
long. Panicle supra-axillary or terminal, 30-80 cm long; bracts c. 1 by 0.5
mm, caducous. Flowers: calyx tube red, c. 1.3 by 0.5 cm, circumscissle
above the hypanthium and falling off with the corolla and stamens, calyx
lobes half-orbicular, 3-10 mm long, lowest one cucullate; petals spathulate,
subequal, 12-30 mm long, limb 8-12 mm wide, basal part 2-3 mm wide;
filaments pale pink, 10-29 mm long, anthers 1.5—3 mm long; ovary falcate,
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 67
4-15 by 1-2 mm; style 6-15 by 0.5 mm; stigma ciliate; pedicel 5-20 mm
long. Legume wine-red, oblong, 10-17 by 3-6 cm (including the c. 1 cm
wide wing). Seeds brown, broadly elliptic, 9-11 by 7 by 1 mm, smooth,
margins nerved.
Distribution — Singapore: rare, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (along
the Rock Path and Cave Path); previously collected in Kranji, Sungei
Jurong. Possibly collected in India. Malesia: Sumatra (West Coast
Bengkulu), Peninsular Malaysia, West and East Java, Borneo (near
Sandakan); New Guinea, Solomons (Guadalcanal) (Hattink, 1974).
Ecology — Forest fringes, along forest trails and in late secondary
forests. Like C. crista, mature climbers of C. sumatrana also have thick
stems with recurved prickles set on top of woody knobs. The knobs of this
species are more closely set than in C. crista.
Uses — None known.
4. C. tortuosa Roxb.
Fl. Ind. ed. Carey 2 (1832) 365; Baker in J.D. Hook., Fl. Brit. India 2
(1879) 256, 257; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., FI.
Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 651; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974) 57; H. Keng,
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 256; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W.
Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; H. Keng, Concise FI.
Singapore (1991) 32; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 118;
I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 295.
Lianas, shrubs or small trees to 10 m tall. Leaves: pinnae in 7—20
pairs, 6-10.5 cm long; pinnules 10—13(—22) by 2-6 mm, glabrous or sparsely
puberulous below, apex rounded to obtuse; stipules absent. Panicle axillary,
terminal or rarely supra-axillary, 20-60 cm long; bracts 2 by 1 mm,
pubescent. Flowers: sepals ovate, unequal, 8-10 by 4-6 mm, ciliate (lowest
deeply cucullate); petals unequal, standard: limb reflexed, orbicular, c. 5
mm in diam., claw 5—8 by 2 mm, hirsute above, other 4 petals: limb orbicular
to reniform, 7-10 by 6-12 mm, claw 1-3 by 1 mn, hirsute or glabrous;
stamens slightly exserted, filaments 10-15 mm long, woolly halfway, anthers
2.5—-3 by 1 mm; ovary subsessile, 3-5 by 1-1.5 mm, hairy or glabrous; style
8-12 mm, sparsely puberulous basally; stigma c. 1 mm across; pedicel 8-15
mm long, pubescent. Legumes black when dry, oblong, 3.5—9 by 2-—3.5 cm,
sutures thickened, constricted between the seeds, apex obtuse, shortly
beaked. Seeds 1-5(—7) per legume.
68 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Distribution — Singapore: now extinct; previously collected in Changi
(Loyang). India (Assam), Hong Kong, Burma; Malesia: West and East
Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia (Johore, Penang), West and East Java,
Kalimantan (Hattink, 1974).
Ecology — Primary and secondary forests, forest fringes, along rivers.
Uses — None known.
Chamaecrista Moench
Methodus (1794) 272; de Wit, Webbia 11 (1955) 278; Irwin and Barneby in
Polhill and Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 106, Mem. N. Y. bot.
Gdn 35 (1982) 636.
Cassia subg. Lasiorhegma Vogel ex Benth.
Herbs with a woody base; stem erect or decumbent, pubescent.
Leaves paripinnate; rachis with longitudinal ridges above, produced to a
short mucro beyond the terminal pairs of pinnae; pinnae asymmetrical,
sessile, apex + mucronate, margins sparsely ciliate, base truncate; petiole
with 1(—2) subsessile glands adaxially; stipules linear, apex acute, margins
ciliate, intrastipular trichomes present. Raceme supra-axillary, few-flowered,
bracts and bracteoles similar to the stipules but smaller. Flowers: sepals 5,
unequal, membranous and thicker in the median undersurface, puberulous;
petals 5, yellow, unequal, membranous, with darker reticulate veins visible,
claw short; stamens 10, filaments straight, short, anthers basifixed, straight
or + curved, of + two length classes, opening by two apical pores, thecae
ciliate along the sutures. Legume strap-shaped, flat, transversely grooved
between seeds, elastically dehiscent, valves twisting spirally. Seeds many
per legume, seedcoat + pitted, glossy.
Distribution — About 240 spp. are indigenous to the Americas with
few indigenous to Tropical Asia (Larsen and Hou, 1996a). In Singapore,
two exotic species. are naturalized (Corlett, 1988).
Ecology — Mainly found in open places, wasteland and reclaimed
land. Roots have nodules.
Uses — Used mainly as green manure. See under species.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 69
Notes — In the past, species in Chamaecrista and Senna were
considered as subgenera under Cassia L. s. l. (e.g., de Wit, 1955). They are
now recognized as separate genera following the work of Irwin and Barneby
(1982) who raised the genus Cassia s./. to the level of subtribe and elevated
the previous subgenera to generic rank alongside Cassia s.s... The
circumscription of the genera follows that of Irwin and Barneby (1982) but
the delimitation of species follows that of Larsen and Hou (1996a) who
have found that Asian species justify the maintenance of both C.
leschenaultiana and C. mimosoides.
Key to the Species
la. Leaf rachis with 2 evenly high longitudinal ridges parallel to each
other on the adaxial surface; pinnae falciform, 2-3 mm wide; subsessile
discoid gland 1—1.5 mm below the lowest pair of pinnae. Ovary and
legume with long, thin, non-appressed hairs; legume with a + hooked
macro. seeds 10-15, per legume .......:,-..:........... 1. C. leschenaultiana
1b. Leaf rachis with only one unevenly high longitudinal ridge in the form
of an adaxial series of semicircular flaps between the nodes; pinnae
linear, 0.5—1 mm wide; sessile discoid gland immediately below the
lowest pair of pinnae. Ovary and legume with stiff, appressed hairs;
legume with a + straight mucro. Seeds 20-25 per legume....................
PR rca eet uae Ashes yet hig dhss sssecsiapsxxeadavevaies dans 2. C. mimosoides
1. C. leschenaultiana (DC.) O.Deg.
Fl. Haw. Fam. 169b. (1934); DC., Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve 2
(1824) 132; Ridl., J. Straits Br. R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay
Penins. 1 (1922) 619; de Wit, Webbia 11 (1955) 280; Rudd, Rev. Handb. FI.
Ceylon (1991) 88; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore
natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45
(1993) 119; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 297; K. Larsen &
Ding Hou, FI. Males. 1:12 (1996) 566.
Cassia leschenaultiana DC.
Chamaecrista nictitans (L.) Moench
Subshrubs to 1.5 m tall; stem erect or decumbent, pubescent. Leaves:
rachis 4—9 cm long, produced to a short mucro to 4 mm long; pinnae in 10-
30 pairs, asymmetrical, 5-20 by 2-3 mm, apex truncate, mucro 0.5 mm long
or more, margins sparsely ciliate, base truncate; petiole 5—7 mm long with
70 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Figure 4. Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene. a. Left, flowering branch; right, fruiting
branch; b. Paired stipules and petiolar gland, inset, intrastipular trichomes. c. From left, unripe,
ripe and split legume showing spirally twisted valves; d. Hilar view and side view of seed; e.
Exploded flower; f. Anterior view of flower. (Each interval on scale bar equivalent to 1mm).
(A.H.B. Loo A.Loo 085).
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 71
1(-2) glands (c. 1 mm in diam.); stipules 10-17 mm long. Raceme 1+-
flowered. Flowers: sepals ovate to long—acute, 7-8 by 1-3 mm; petals
orbicular to obovate, c. 7-8 by 3-6 mm; filaments short, c. 1 mm long,
anthers slightly curved, unequal, 2-6 mm long; ovary c. 5 by 1 mm, sessile;
style recurved, c. 2 mm long, glabrous; stigma flat, ciliate. Legume green
turning brown, strap—shaped, 3-5 by 0.5 cm. Seeds dark brown, oblong,
flat, c. 4 by 3 mm.
Distribution — Singapore: fairly common but less common than C.
mimosoides; Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin (Western tip). South-east Asia,
widespread in Malesia (Larsen and Hou, 1996a).
Ecology — Found in waste or reclaimed land; in Pulau Ubin growing
in rock crevices near the sea. It has been observed to form nodules (Allen
& Allen, 1981).
Uses — As green manure (Burkill, 1935).
2. C. mimosoides (L.) Greene
Pittonia 4 (1899) 27; L., Sp. pl. (1753) 379; Baker in J. D. Hook., FI. Brit.
India 2 (1879) 266; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 619; de Wit, Webbia
11 (1955) 283; M.R. Hend, Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic. (1959) 97; H. Keng, Gdns’
Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663;
J.B. Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland
(1990) 94; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; I.M. Turner, K.S.
Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M.
Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 119; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull.,
Singapore 47 (1995) 297; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996)
567.
Cassia mimosoldes L.
Subshrubs to 1.2 m tall; stem erect or decumbent, appressed
pubescent. Leaves: rachis 3-5 cm long, produced to a short mucro to 3 mm
long; pinnae in 40-60 pairs, asymmetrical, 3-6 by 0.5—1 mm, apex acute,
mucro less than 0.5 mm long, margins sparsely ciliate, base truncate; petiole
2-3 mm long with 1 adaxial gland (c. 0.5 mm in diam.); stipules 3-5 mm
long. Raceme 1—3-flowered; bracts and bracteoles like stipules but smaller.
Flowers: sepals ovate to long acute, 8-10 by 2-5 mm; petals orbicular to
obovate, 9-13 by 8-10 mm; filaments 1-2 mm long, anthers straight to
slightly curved, 4-8 mm long, 2 adaxial ones turning reddish; ovary 6—9 by
1 mm, sessile; style 3-4 mm long, glabrous; stigma flat, ciliate. Legume
72 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
green turning brown, strap—shaped, 4-6 by 0.5 cm. Seeds dark brown,
oblong, flat, c. 2.5 by 1.5 mm.
Distribution — Singapore: fairly common; Old Upper Thomson Road,
Pulau Tekong, Yishun Ave 6. Regarded as introduced in the Malesian
area and Africa; common all over tropical Asia (Larsen and Hou, 1996a).
Ecology — A short-lived weed of 1-2 years found in waste- or
reclaimed land and which flowers and fruits year-round. The leaves are
more sensitive than those of C. leschenaultiana and are thigmonastic and
photoblastic, folding up during the hottest hours of the day and at night.
The Singapore specimens have been observed to have root nodules. In
Malesia this is a polymorphic species with many ecotypes (Larsen and
Hou, 1996a).
Uses — As green manure; the roots are used for spasms in the
stomach and tea is made from the leaves by the Japanese (Burkill, 1935).
Notes — Like C. leschenaultiana, a line of hairs can be observed on
the inner surface of the stipules near the point of insertion (Fig. 4b, inset).
Cynometra L.
Sp. pl. (1753) 382, Gen. pl. ed. 5 (1754) 179; Meeuwen, Blumea 18 (1970)
1-52; Cowan & Polhill in Polhill & Raven (eds.), Adv. Leg. Syst. 1
(1981)124; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 22.
Trees to 26 m tall; vegetative buds small, scaly. Leaves when new in
bright pink tassles, when mature, paripinnate, 1—2-jugate; pinnae opposite,
asymmetrical, chartaceous with an acroscopic midrib, glabrous; stipules
early caducous. Raceme sessile, 1(—2) per axil or when cauliflorous, in
groups of 3-5, densely-flowered, + spherical in outline; rachis short,
pubescent to glabrous. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic; bracts scale-like,
apressed hairy, lower ones reniform, decreasing in width up the raceme
and becoming acute; bracteoles obovate, ciliate, caducous; sepals 4(-5),
reflexed at anthesis, imbricate; petals 5(-4), narrow, glabrous; stamens 10
(-11), + equal, filaments glabrous, anthers sagittate basally and apiculate at
the apex, connective introrse, medi-dorsifixed, often cleft below the insertion
of the filament, longitudinally dehiscent; ovary with 1(—2) ovules, densely
pilose, shortly stipitate; style sparsely puberulous to halfway; receptacle
shortly campanulate, circumscissle under the ripening fruit. Fruit
indehiscent, rugose, brown scurfy, patently hairy, woody on a thickened
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 73
pedicel. Seeds 1(-—2) per legume.
Distribution — About 70 spp., pantropical, in the West Pacific found
eastwards as far as Micronesia, the Solomons and Fiji. and 14 spp. (13
indigenous and one cultivated) occurring in Malesia (Hou, 1996b). In
Singapore there is only one indigenous sp.
Ecology — Mainly confined to the back-mangrove but also found
inland.
Uses — As commercial timber (as the medium hardwood kekatong
as classified by the Malaysian Timber Board). See under spp. Cynometra
cauliflora L. (nam nam) is a cultivated sp. which was commonly planted
for its fruits which can be eaten raw or cooked.
1. C. ramiflora L. var. ramiflora
Sp. pl. (1753) 382; Backer & Bakh. f, Fl. Java 1 (1964) 526; Meeuwen,
Blumea 18 (1970) 23; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 254; H. Keng,
Gdns’ Bull. Singapore 27 (1974) 259; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988)
434; H. Keng, Concise. Fl. Singapore (1990) 34; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua &
H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner,
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 119; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore
47 (1995) 299.
Cynometra ramiflora subsp. bijuga Prain
Trees 4-26 m tall. Leaves 1—2-jugate; pinnae oblong, elliptic, obovate—
lanceolate, base cuneate, lower pair much smaller, 1.1-5.5 by 0.5-2.6 cm
with an acute apex, upper pair 4.5-14 by 1.6-5.6 cm with an acute to
acuminate apex, petiolules indistinct; rachis 0.8—1.3 cm, canaliculate; petiole
3-15 mm, canaliculate. Raceme: rachis 13-25 mm long. Flowers: bracteoles
3-4 mm long; sepals lanceolate, 3-6 by 1-1.5 mm long, ciliate marginally
and apically to glabrous; petals lanceolate to spathulate, 3-8 mm long,
sometimes shortly mucronate; filaments 4-7 mm long, anthers orbicular,
0.5—1 mm long; ovary slightly excentrically inserted, rhomboid, flattened,
1-2 by 0.5-1 mm; style 3.5-5.5 mm long; gynophore 0.5-1 mm long;
hypanthium 1-1.25 mm deep; pedicel 7-15 mm long. Fruit ovate or elliptic,
the tip pointing up, 2.3-3.8 by 1.5-3 cm. Seeds c. 1.2 by 1 cm.
Distribution — Singapore: now probably extinct; previously collected
in Kranji and Sungei Jurong. From India throughout South-east Asia and
Malesia to the Pacific but not in Sri Lanka and Australia (Hou, 1996b).
74 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Figure 5. Cynometra ramiflora L. var. ramiflora a. Fruiting branch with one fruit
longitudinally halved. (J. Sinclair SF 40957); b. Inflorescence; c. Scaly axillary bud; d. Isolated
petal; e. Isolated carpel on hypanthium and pedicel; f. Back view of a stamen with cleft introrsed
anther; g. Front view of an uncleft anther and top portion of filament. (Balara 3662).
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae fs
Ecology — A constituent of the back-mangrove. The corky pericarp
contains many air pockets which give buoyancy to the fruit which is
dispersed by water (Meeuwen, 1970).
Uses — The hard, dark brown timber is only available in small
quantities and is used for making doorposts; the roots purge and the leaves
and oil from the seeds are used to treat skin diseases (Burkill, 1935).
Notes — The other var., var. bifoliata (Merr.) Meeuwen, has distinct
petiolules 5-8 mm long but is only found in the Philippines (Luzon,
Mindanao) (Meeuwen, 1970).
Dialium L.
Mant. 1 (1767) 3; Irwin & Barneby in Polhill & Raven (eds.), Adv. Leg.
Syst. 1 (1981) 101; K. Larsen, S. S. Larsen & J. E. Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4:1
(1984) 85; J. P. Rojo, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 608.
Trees; young stems lenticellate, pubescent. Leaves imparipinnate,
rachis and petiole pubescent to glabrous, eglandular; pinnae alternate to
subopposite, glabrous above, glabrous to pubsecent below, lamina margins
entire, petiolules short, 2-6 mm long; stipules small, 1-1.5 mm wide,
caducous. Panicle terminal, bractless, pubescent, lower branches usually
subtended by leaves. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, small; sepals 5,
reflexed at maturity, pubescent all over but minutely so inside; petals 0;
stamens 2, filaments slender to stout, anthers basifixed, longitudinally
dehiscent, connective puberulous; ovary sessile, centrally or excentrically
inserted, subglobose, densely pubescent, ovules 1(—2); style short, straight
to sharply curved; stigma small slightly swollen; hypanthium flat or concave;
pedicels pubescent. Drupe subglobose to obovoid, + compressed, hairy or
velvety, 1(—2)-seeded, exocarp crustaceous, endocarp pulpy, enveloping
the seeds. Seeds 1(-2) per drupe, squarish, roundish or reniform, flat,
smooth, longitudinally striate.
Distribution — Pantropical genus of 27 spp., not in Australia and the
Pacific Islands (Rojo, 1996). In Malesia absent from the islands east of
Borneo and Java. In Singapore there are two indigenous spp., one with
two vars.
Ecology — In primary and late secondary forests.
Uses — The heartwood gives a good general-purpose timber, known
76 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
as keranji (Rojo & Alonzo, 1993). The pulpy endocarp of the fruits are
edible but of slight economic importance (Rojo, 1996).
Notes — For the Singapore spp., D. patens has been reduced to D.
indum var. indum and D. maingayi reduced to D. platysepalum, respectively
following a revision by J. P. Rojo (unpubl. thesis, 1982). The spp. of
Dialium are best separated with floral characters, in particular, the anthers
(v-channeled or not), the depth of the hypanthium and the insertion of the
ovary and stamens (centrally or excentrically).
Key to the Species
la. Flower buds triulate, dark rusty pubescent; anthers v-channeled,
triangular; filaments stout and flattened; style sharply recurved at the
top; receptacle concave and wide; ovary and stamens excentrically
inserted. Lamina of pinna chartaceous to thinly coriaceous, veins
indistinct and not clearly raised on both surfaces, sometimes obscured
by a golden indumentum below. Drupe velvety ............. eee esseeeseeeeees
snownbinmtbedegdesinn Gat tsk des aust tlle oh oe Oa Pa Saha ea 2. D. platysepalum
1b. Flower buds elliptic or rarely, ovate, white or whitish pubescent; anthers
not v-channelled, oblong; filaments narrow and subulate; style straight
to slightly recurved at the top; receptacle shallow and narrow, ovary
and stamens + centrally inserted. Lamina of pinna subcoriaceous to
stiffly coriaceous, veins and reticulations distinct and slightly to
prominently raised on both surfaces, not obscured by a golden
indumentum on the lower surface at all times. Drupe hairy but not
52 8 5 MO SEND Um Sc: 5 UM, Un EAN NE AL WH Pe 1. D. indum
1. D. indum L.
Mant. 1 (1767) 24; Baker in J.D. Hook., Fl. Brit. India 2 (1878) 269, 270;
Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1990) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1
(1922) 622; de Wit, Blumea 7 (1953) 320, 321; Whitmore, Tree Fl. Malaya
1 (1972) 260; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 260; K. Larsen,
S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4:1 (1984) 87; H. Keng, Concise FI.
Singapore (1990) 35; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore
natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I. M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45
(1993) 121; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 302; J. P. Rojo,
Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 609-612.
Dialium laurinum Baker
Dialium marginatum de Wit
Dialium patens Baker
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae a?
Trees to 40 m tall; dbh to 1 m, twigs grey to dark brown pubescent.
Leaves: petiole and rachis (4—)10—15(—20) cm long; pinnae 5, 7 or 9, lamina
surfaces concolourous to darker above, ovate-oblong, ovate-lanceolate to
broadly elliptic, (4~-)6-10(-17) by (2.5—)3—5(-7.5) cm, veins in 8—10(-14)
pairs, puberulous to glabrous below, apex rounded to long acute, base
cuneate to obtuse, petiolules 3-6 mm. Panicle rachis 6-20 cm long. Flowers:
sepals elliptic or ovate-elliptic, to 5 by 2.5 mm, white pubescent outside;
filaments 0.5—-2 mm long, anthers 2.5-4 by 1.5 mm; ovary to 2 mm long,
white to golden-brown pubescent; style to 2 mm long; pedicels 2-6 mm
long. Drupe brown, globose to ovoid, 1.5—2.5 by 1—1.5 cm, exocarp brittle.
Seeds 1(-2) per drupe, brown, squarish to reniform, 7-12 by 5 mm.
Distribution — Singapore: rare; confined mainly to the Nature
Reserves; previously collected in Kranji, MacRitchie Reservoir (South)
and Mandai Road. Southernmost Thailand and in Malesia: Sumatra,
Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Java (Rojo, 1996).
Ecology — Primary and late secondary forest.
Notes — There are two vars. that can be distinguished fairly accurately
based on their pinnae. There are, however, intermediates. The type
specimen of Dialium laurinum (Lectotype: Maingay 1625 (residing in K),
Peninsular Malaysia) is intermediate between the two vars. Ridley believed
that the Singapore district, Kranji may have taken its name from this sp.
which was previously abundant there (Keng, 1990). Dialium indum var.
indum was not included in Singapore for its distribution area by Rojo
(1996) in his revision of the Malesian spp. of Dialium. However D. patens
which was sunk into this var., was already included in the flora of Singapore
(Turner et al., 1990; Turner, 1993) and collections made in Singapore were
found in SING (specimen Corner 37721; J. Sinclair, SF 40957).
Key to Varieties
la. Pinnae broadly elliptic to broadly lanceolate, stiffly coriaceous, apex
obtuse to abruptly acuminate; veins and reticulations prominently
pene AbOVS BH CIWS dels var. bursa
1b. Pinnae ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, subcoriaceous, apex long
acuminate to shortly cuspidate; veins and reticulations distinct but
RUPAE VARIO RUCI WN DAME TRON W) ooo cach soe devri sacscaavsa lt desnsnsdidarads var. indum
78 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
2. D. platysepalum Baker
In J.D. Hook. Fl. Brit. India 2 (1878) 270; Prain, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66, ii
(1897) 173, 174; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1990) 74; Ridl., FI.
Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 622, 623; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 259-
261; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., (1974) 260, 261; K. Larsen, S.S. Larsen & J.E.
Vidal, Fl. Thailand 4:1 (1984) 88; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990)
35; I.M. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18
& 19 (1990) 72; I. M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 121; I.M.
Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 302; J. P. Rojo, Fl. Males. 1:12
(1996) 612.
Dialium kingii Prain
Dialium maingayi Baker
Dialium wallichii (Baker) Prain
Trees to 45 m tall; dbh 90-120 cm; twigs greyish to rusty brown
pubescent. Leaves: petiole and rachis (S—)10—18(—28) cm long; pinnae less
the terminal one, in (S—)7—9(-13) pairs, lanceolate to oblong-elliptic, (4—-)
6-10(-15) by (1.5—)2-4(-7) cm, veins in 10—-12(-15) pairs, lamina upper
surface grey to dark brown when dry, lower surface milky brown or golden
pubescent, puberulous to glabrescent or with a golden indumentum below,
apex abruptly or long acuminate to cuspidate, base rounded to cuneate,
petiolule 2-6 mm long. Panicle rachis 7-18 cm long, dark brown pubescent.
Flowers: sepals ovate-triangular, to 6 by 4 mm, rusty to golden brown
pubescent outside; style to 3 mm long; pedicel 2-4 mm long. Drupe dark
brown, subglobose to obovoid, 1.5—3 long, sometimes with stipe to 2 mm
long, pericarp firm. Seeds 1(—2) per drupe, brown, subglobose, 0.3-1.7 by
0.9-1 cm.
Distribution — Singapore: rare; Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle
Falls); previously collected in Botanic Gardens’ Jungle; Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve (Rock Path and Ginger Walk), Jurong (Kim Teck Road),
MacRitchie Nature Reserve (South). Malesia: Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
Borneo (Rojo, 1996).
Ecology — In primary forests and late secondary forest. In Malesia,
also occurring in freshwater swamp forest. Flowers year-round, with peaks
in Dececember to March and May to September, and fruiting most in July
to October (Rojo, 1996).
Uses — As timber (keranji); pulpy endocarp of the fruits is edible
(Burkill, 1935).
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 79
imm
Figure 6. Dialium platysepalum Baker. a. Flowering branch; b. Triulate flower bud; c. Position
of a v-channelled stamen; d. Isolated carpel on hypanthium and tip of pedicel (Ngadiman
3621); h. Drupe. (H. Keng S.N.) — Dialium indum L. e. (Ovate)-elliptic flower bud; f. Isolated
carpel on hypanthium and tip of pedicel; g. Isolated stamen. (Kostermans 6562).
80 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Notes — Based on the classification of Rojo (1996) there are 3 discrete
‘groups’ that can be distinguished in Singapore based on the size of the
pinnae and colour and quality of their indumentum on their undersurface.
The ‘wallichi’ group is the most distinct group and is characterised in
having lanceolate pinnae not exceeding 7 by 2 cm; the lower surface is also
covered with a golden indumentum that often obscures the veins below
and the upper surface is often greyish. The ‘maingayi and ‘platysepalum’
group are more difficult to separate; the ‘maingayi group having a whitish
to slightly golden indumentum below with indistinct veins and the
‘platysepalum’ group having pinnae that are often tinged golden beneath.
These ‘groups’ along with the ‘kingii’ and ‘triste’ groups are not given any
nomenclatural or taxonomic status as the differences between them are
slight and they form a gradient with intermediate specimens.
Intsia Thouars
Gen. Nov. Madg. (1806) 22; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:17 (1941)
139; Cowan & Polhill in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg Syst. 1 (1981)
128; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 35; K. Larsen,
S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal, Flora of Thailand 4:1 (1984) 124; Ding Hou,
Blumea 38 (1994) 322.
Trees often buttressed; trunk sometimes crooked, bark in brown and
grey patches. Leaves paripinnate, (1—)2(-3)-jugate, laminas ovate to
suborbiculate, chartaceous to subcoriaceous, usually with 1-2 small (< 0.5
mm across) crateriform glands at the base on the lower surface, petiolules
twisted; stipules intrapetiolar, connate. /nflorescence a fascicle or a raceme
of racemes, terminal or axillary, pubescent to glabrescent. Flowers bisexual,
zygomorphic; bracts early caducous; calyx lobes 4, subequal, pubescent;
petals: only one fully developed, limb flabellate, lower half narrowed into
a claw, others rudimentary or absent; stamens 3(-—4), staminodes 4-7,
filaments and staminodes connate at the base, anthers dorsifixed,
longitudinally dehiscent; ovary stipitate, stipe pubescent and adnate to the
hypanthium except at the apical part; style coiled and slender; stigma
capitulate, small. Legumes oblong, straight to slightly falcate, flattened,
glabrous, valves leathery to slightly woody. Seeds 3-6 per legume, oblong,
ovoid or discoid, flattened, scurfy.
Distribution — Two or more spp. from Madagascar, islands of the
Indian Ocean, Tropical Asia, through Malesia to Northern Australia,
Melanesia and Micronesia (Hou, 1994). In Malesia two spp. occur. In
Singapore only one sp. is indigenous.
SE
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 81
Ecology — Intsia spp. are long-lived spp. and are confined mainly to
the coastal habitats, near mangroves and on sandy beaches (Hou, 1994).
Uses — As timber under the trade name merbau; [ntsia timber is
hard, very strong and durable and also termite-resistant; it has a wide
range of uses both in- and outdoors from heavy construction to flooring,
doors, posts, poles, and sleepers (Hou, 1994).
1. I. bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
Rev. Gen. pl. 1 (1891) 192; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900)
75; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 639; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1
(1972) 262; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 262; K. Larsen, S.
S. Larsen & J. E. Vidal, Flora of Thailand 4:1 (1984) 125; Corner, Ways.
Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 438; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 36; I.M.
Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19
(1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 122; Ding Hou,
Blumea 38 (1994) 324, ; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 304.
Afzelia bijuga A. Gray
Afzelia retusa Kurz
Trees to 40 m tall; dbh to 1 m but usually smaller. Leaves: rachis
1.5—3.5 cm long; pinnae laminas ovate to broadly elliptic or suborbiculate,
(2—)4-15 by 1.5-8.5 cm, abaxial midrib pubescent in the lower half, apex
broadly acuminate, retuse or rounded, base cuneate to obtuse, petiolules
2—7 mm long; petiole 2.5-5.5 cm long; stipules c. 1 by 1 mm. Raceme 5-10
cm long. Flowers: calyx lobes ovate to obovate, 1—1.2 by 0.6—0.8 cm; petal
white turning pink, red or purple, limb 1.2—1.5 by 1.5 cm, claw c. 0.5 by 0.1
cm, puberulous adaxially; filaments red or purple, 3—3.5 cm long, puberulous
basally, anthers 2-2.5 by 0.5—1 mm, staminodes to 10 mm long; ovary 4—
7.5 by 1.5 mm; style red or purple, 3-4 cm long; stigma c. 1 mm long;
hypanthium 5-12 by 2-3 mm; pedicel 5-15 mm. Legume green turning
purple to black, 7.5—20 by 5-6 cm. Seeds black, c. 2 by 2.5 cm.
Distribution — Singapore: rare; Pulau Tekong Kechil, Sungei Buloh
Nature Park, Western Catchment Area; previously found in Bukit Timah
Nature Reserve, Changi, Kranji Nature Reserve, Lim Chu Kang
(Sarimbun), Pulau Jong, Pulau Ubin, Seletar, Tuas. Madagascar, islands
of the Indian ocean, Tropical Asia, through Malesia to Northern Australia,
Melanesia and Micronesia (Hou, 1994).
82 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Figure 7. Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze. a. Fruiting branch; b. Inflorescence; c. Seed; d.
Lower surface of pinna showing crateriform glands (g); e. Adaxial view of twisted petiolule
(A.H.B. Loo, A. Ibrahim, E.E.L. Seah & H.T.W.Tan A.Loo 037; f. Side view of a flower. (Rao
& Jumali K6662).
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 83
Ecology — Along sea coasts, in beach forest or the back-mangrove,
edges of rivers, in tidal or temporarily inundated places with (salty) water;
also found in primary forests. A treelet c. 2 m tall growing from a rock
crevice was observed to be in fruit in Pulau Tekong Kechil. The roots are
reported to nodulate with a typical cowpea-type strain in Tully, Queensland,
Australia (Allen and Allen 1981).
Uses — I. bijuga is a major tropical logwood and sawnwood sp.
imported and exported under the trade name merbau (ITTO, 1996).
Koompassia Maingay ex Benth.
In Hooker’s Icon. Pl. 12 (1873) 58, t. 1164; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.
3:17 (1947) 309; Irwin & Barneby in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg. Syst.
1 (1981) 101; Watson and Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983)
37.
Trees, deciduous, gigantic; buttresses steep, thick and plank-like.
Leaves imparipinnate; rachis and petiole ferruginous pubescent to
glabrescent; pinnae alternate to subopposite, 5—14, laminas elliptic to ovate,
subcoriaceous to coriaceous, pubescent below, midrib sunken and
puberulous above, prominent below, lateral veins many, obscure on the
upper surface, petiolules pubescent; stipules broadly ovate, small, early
caducous. Panicle densely flowered, terminal or axillary, ferruginous
pubescent. Flowers small; bracts and bracteoles lanceolate, small, caducous;
calyx 5-lobed, lobes subequal, imbricate, pubescent outside; petals 5,
subequal, with a prominent midvein, glabrous; stamens 5, alternating with
the petals, filaments very short, glabrous, anthers basifixed, opening by
apical and basal pores, both pores connected by a subdehiscent longitudinal
rim; ovary sessile or sometimes, subsessile, 1-ovuled, pubescent; style very
short; stigma indistinct; pedicels pubescent. Samara strongly compressed
laterally, twisted 180°C at the base, pubescent, centre thickened and
prominently veined, wing broad, circumferential, broadened apically,
chartaceous. Seed 1 per legume, irregularly oblong, strongly compressed
laterally.
Distribution — A small genus comprising three spp. in Malesia:
Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines and New Guinea (Hou,
1996c). In Singapore only one sp. is indigenous.
Ecology — In primary and late secondary forest; also in freshwater
swamp forest.
84 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Uses — All three spp. in Malesia have timber that are suitable for
structural usage.
1. K. malaccensis Benth.
In Hooker’s Icon. Pl. 3:2 (1876) 58, t. 1164; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat.
Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Merr. Phillip. J. Sc. Bot 10 (1915) 12; Ridl., Fl. Malay
Penins. 1 (1922) 620; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz. 3:17 (1947) 317;
Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 265; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore
27 (1974) 262; K. Larsen, S. S. Larsen & J. E. Vidal, Flora of Thailand 4:1
(1984) 84; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 439; H. Keng, Concise FI.
Singapore (1990) 36; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore
natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45
(1993) 122; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 304; Ding Hou,
Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 634.
Trees to 45(—60) m tall; dbh 64(—120) cm; buttresses to 3(-6) m high.
Leaves: rachis 6.2-19 cm long; pinnae 5—9(-14), laminas elliptic, ovate,
oblong—ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, 3.5-10.4(-12.5) by 1.6-3.7 cm, finely
areolate above, apex acuminate, slightly notched, base usually rounded,
petiolules 4-9 mm long; petiole 1.4-3.9 cm long; stipules 2—-2.5 mm wide.
Panicle to 12 cm long. Flowers: bracts fleshy, c. 1 mm long, bracteoles
subalternate, 0.5—1 mm long; calyx lobes ovate-lanceolate, 2-3 by 1 mm;
petals orbicular to obovate, c. 2-3 by 1-1.5 mm, base fleshy; filaments
abruptly broadened basally, 0.5—1 mm long; anthers heart-shaped, c. 1 by
0.5 mm; ovary c. 1 mm long; style < 0.5 mm long; pedicel 0.5—5 mm long.
Samara green turning brown, oblong, 8.7—15 by 2.7-4.5 cm (including wing).
Seed beige, to 3.5 by 1.5 cm, shallowly rugose.
Distribution — Singapore: vulnerable; Botanic Gardens’ Jungle, the
Nature Reserves; previously common all over Singapore (Keng, 1990).
Malesia: Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Bangka, Biliton, throughout
Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo (Hou, 1996c).
Ecology — In primary and late secondary forest and freshwater
swamp forest; sometimes occurring in groups near rivulets. Flowering and
fruiting occurs year round. Seedlings can be found abundantly near the
parent tree. Dispersal is by rapid spinning of the samaras sometimes to a
distance of 50 m or more (Ridley, 1930). J. F. Maxwell (specimen J. F.
Maxwell 81-225, in 1981), reported that the seeds were eaten by the long-
tailed macaque, Macaca fascicularis, which bent the wings over the seed to
expose it.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 85
€ f
Figure 8. Koompassia malaccensis Benth. a. Fruiting branch (Kostermans 6682); b. Isolated
sepal;c. Isolated petal; d. Isolated stamen;e. Isolated carpel on pedicel; f. Side view of a flower;
g. Seed; h. Cross-section of pinnae showing pubescence on adaxial midrib and and abaxial
surface of pinna. (J.F. Maxwell 81-225).
a
86 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Uses — This sp. yields a coarse and hard, reddish heartwood which
is known as kempas. The timber is strong but not popular as it is readily
attacked by termites and has limited durability when exposed; it gives
excellent charcoal and the buttresses are used as table tops (de Wit, 1947).
K. malaccensis is a major tropical logwood and sawnwood sp. imported
and exported under the trade name kempas (ITTO, 1996).
Peltophorum (Vogel) Benth.
J. Bot. 2 (1840) 75, nom. cons.;Vogel, Linnaea 11 (1837) 406; Taubert,
PflFam. 3:3 (1892) 176; Polhill & J. E. Vidal in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv.
Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 90; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae
(1983) 47.
Deciduous trees, young shoots ferrugineous pubescent or glabrescent.
Leaves twice-paripinnate; rachis and petiole ferruginous pubescent, grooved
adaxially; pinnules numerous, opposite, small, venation finely reticulate,
puberulous all over, sessile; stipules small, caducous. Inflorescence a raceme
of racemes, terminal and axillary, ferrugineous pubescent. Flowers bisexual,
zygomorphic; bracts minute, caducous; sepals 5, imbricate, reflexed, yellow-
green, triangular, subequal, pubescent outside; petals 5, yellow, subequal,
ferruginous woolly towards the short claw, venation finely reticulate;
stamens 10, free, subequal, filaments slender, basally flattened and pilose,
anthers brown, oblong, equal, dorsifixed and versatile, longitudinally
dehiscent; ovary stipitate; style filiform, incurled; stigma broadly peltate;
receptacle short, obscure. Legume indehiscent with a firm wing-like margin,
oblong-lanceolate, strongly compressed laterally, woody, smooth,
longitudinally striate, apex acute, base cuneate, slightly constricted between
the seeds. Seeds lenticular to narrowly oblong, irregularly compressed.
Distribution — A pantropical genus of about 15 spp., three occurring
in Malesia (Hou, 1996d). In Singapore, one sp. is indigenous.
Ecology — Coastal, along beaches and in the back-mangrove.
Uses — See under sp.
1. P. pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne
Nutt. Pl. Ned.-Ind., ed. 2 (1927) 755; DC., Prodr. 2 (1825) 441; Backer &
Bakh. f., Fl. Java 1 (1964) 547; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 268; H.
Keng, Gdns’ Bull. Singapore 27 (1974) 263; Hattink, Reinwardtia 9 (1974)
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 87
Figure 9. Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K. Heyne. a. Flowering branch; b. Anterior view
of flower; c. Side views of legume; d. Hilar view and side view of seed; e. Petiole cross-sectioned
to show paired stipules (s); f. Exploded flower; g. Left - flowers and buds in a raceme, right -
young legumes in a raceme. (Each interval on scale bar equivalent to 1mm). (A.H.B.Loo
A.Loo 086).
88 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
59; Verdc., Manual New Guinea Legumes., Lae Bot. Bull. 11 (1979) 16; H.
Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 37; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W.
Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 73; ILM. Turner, Gdns’
Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 123; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47
(1995) 308; Ding Hou, FI. Males. 1:12 (1996) 651.
Peltophorum ferrugineum (Decne.) Benth.
Trees to 35 m tall; trunk beige, dbh 0.7-1.0 m. Leaves: rachis 9-14
cm long; pinnae in 4—13 pairs; pinnules in 15-18 pairs per pinna, oblong,
10-18 by 5-7 mm, puberulous all over, sessile, apex rounded to emarginate,
base unequal, acute or rounded; petiole 2.5—4 cm long; stipules deltoid, 3—
5mm long. Inflorescence to 40 cm long. Flowers fragrant; bracts deltoid,
c. 5 mm long; sepals 7-10 by 5 mm; topmost two sometimes puberulous in
the upper median portion; petals obovate, 2—2.5 by 1.2-1.8 cm, wrinkled;
filaments pale yellow, 10-13 mm long, anthers c. 2 by 1 mm; ovary densely
pubescent, 5—7 by 1-2 mm; style c. 1 cm long, stigma white green, c. 2 by 2
mm, sticky; pedicel 5-7 mm. Legume reddish brown, 6-14 by 2-3.5 cm
(including 4-5 mm wide wing-like margin). Seeds 1-3(-4) per legume,
longitudinally arranged, beige, c. 12 by 5 mm.
Distribution — Singapore: almost extinct; possibly wild in Pulau
Semakau and Pulau Tekong Kechil; previously collected in Changi (coast),
Tuas. Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, South Vietnam; throughout Malesia
to Northern Australia (Hou, 1996d).
Ecology — Coastal beach forest and the back-mangrove. Flowering
and fruiting year round. Nodules are absent from this species (Allen &
Allen, 1981). The flowers have a slightly sweet, musky scent.
Uses — Cultivated widely as a wayside and park tree in Singapore.
The wood is strong and good for building, making boats and planks; in
Java a dye from the bark is used to colour batik yellow-brown; the bark is
used internally to cure dysentery and externally as a lotion for sprains,
muscular aches, ulcers, as an eye-lotion, gargle and tooth-powder (Burkill,
1935):
Senna Mill.
Gdnr’s. Dict., abr. ed. 4 (1754); Irwin and Barneby in Polhill and Raven
(eds.), Adv. Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 105; Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35 (1982) 64;
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 89
Benth., Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 27 (1871) 513; de Wit, Webbia 11 (1956)
228; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 673.
Cassia subg. Senna (Miller) Benth.
Herbs to shrubs, foetid or weakly so; stem glabrous to pubescent.
Leaves: rachis and petiole eglandular or with 1(—2) glands adaxially, both
grooved or widely and shallowly so, puberulous to pubescent, rachis
abaxially produced to a short mucro beyond the uppermost petiolules;
pinnae opposite, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, ovate or obovate, increasing in
size distally, apex obtuse to acuminate, pubescent to glabrescent, base
subequal, petiolules to 5 mm long; stipules paired. Raceme axillary and/or
terminal. Flowers ebracteolate; sepals 5, ovate to orbicular, subequal;
petals 5, obovate to orbicular, subequal, shortly clawed; stamens (6-—)7, in 2
sizes, staminodes 0-—3(-4), filaments straight, anthers basifixed, mostly
beaked or produced, larger ones usually curved, opening by two apical
pores, thecae not ciliate along the sutures. Legume indehiscent or inertly
dehiscent through one or both sutures, in the latter case not coiling,
transversly septate between seeds, many-seeded. Seeds and funicles
variable.
Distribution — Pantropical genus of c. 260 spp., originating mainly
from the Americas. There are 17 relatively common spp. in Malesia and
of these probably only three spp. are indigenous (including Senna tora)
(Larsen and Hou, 1996b). In Singapore, five exotic spp. are naturalized
(Corlett, 1988).
Ecology — Mostly found in abandoned kampongs or farmland,
occasionally in open places and along railway lines. Root nodules are
absent.
Uses — See under spp.
Notes — See notes under Chamaecrista for reasons to recognize
Chamaecrista and Senna as genera separate from Cassia
Key to the Species
la. Shrubs; stem to 3-7 cm thick, marked with persistent stipules and
conspicuous leaf scars. Petiole and rachis eglandular; rachis 30-56 cm
long; pinnae in 8-20 pairs, margins orange, apex and base obtuse,
90
1b.
2a.
2b.
3a.
3b.
4a.
Ab.
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
lowermost pair much smaller than the rest, recurved and set further
apart from the rest (1.e., Ist internode the longest); stipules deltoid,
stiff, persistent. Raceme densely 30—-50-flowered. Bracts orange,
petaloid, enveloping bud; sepals orange-yellow, incurled. Legume
tetragonal, winged. Seeds olive-green, quadrangular ........ 1. S. alata
Herbs or undershrubs; stem to 1.5 cm thick, not marked with persistent
stipules or conspicuous leaf scars. Petiole or rachis with glands present;
rachis 1.5-17 cm long; pinnae in 3-5(-7) pairs, margins green, apex
rounded, acute or acuminate, base cuneate to rounded, lowermost
pair not much smaller than the rest or recurved and not set further
apart from the rest (i.e., all internodes subequal); stipules linear,
membranous, caducous. Raceme loosely 2—5(-8)-flowered. Bracts
green, linear, not enveloping bud; sepals green, flat or slightly incurved.
Legume flattened or terete, wingless. Seeds brown, ovoid to orbicular
Petiole base with glands; rachis eglandular, 5-17 cm long; pinnae in 3-
5(-7) pairs, ovate or elliptic, apex acute or acuminate. Stigma subapical
or lateral. .Legume: + straight Seedsidulli.....34:,.0 eee 3
Petiole eglandular; rachis with glands between the lowest pair or lowest
two pairs of pinnae, 1.5-3 cm long; pinnae in 3 pairs, obovate, apex
rounded or obtuse. Stigma apical. Legume falcate. Seeds glossy ...4
Plant foetid, pubescent all over. Pinnae pubescent on both surfaces;
petiolar gland subulate, c. 1.5 mm long. Inflorescence a leafy raceme.
Lowest part of the androecium a stamen with a narrow anther; ovary
woolly. Legume hirsute, angular. Seeds obovoid, without an areole
{iotelaLlabueas edad a ical ee eles 0 Bo a a ga eee 2. S. hirsuta
Plant not foetid to slightly so, + glabrous. Pinnae glabrous above,
glabrescent below; petiolar gland globose, c. 3 mm across.
Inflorescence in + leafless raceme. Lowest part of the androecium a
filamentous staminode with a petaloid anther; ovary shortly pubescent.
Legume glabrous to glabrescent, sub-terete. Seeds orbicular, brown
with :a,paler-areole:.): cain ee eee 4. S. occidentalis
A gland between the lowest pair of pinnae only. Pedicel of flower
usually 1-3.5 cm long, of legume 2-4.5 cm long. 3 largest anthers
bottle-necked below the apex. Areole of seed 0.3-0.5 mm wide,
covering little of the seed surface. Plant weakly foetid ..........
sosegigsi cunndh ance bactLEd ie teaiseere deste AT eee ee a 3. S. obtusifolia
A gland between the lowest 2 pairs of pinnae. Pedicel of flower
usually 0.5-1 cm long, of legume 1-1.5 cm long. 3 largest anthers
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 9]
abruptly rounded at the apex. Areole of seed 1.5—2 mm wide, covering
much of the seed surface. Plant strongly foetid ..........00...... 5. S. tora
1. S. alata (L.) Roxb
Fl. Ind. ed. 2, 2 (1832) 349; Sp. pl. (1753) 378; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R.
Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 619; de Wit,
Webbia 11 (1956) 231; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 257;
Irwin & Barneby, Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35 (1982) 460; R.T. Corlett, J.
Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 429; J.B.
Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland (1990)
86; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua &
H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M. Turner,
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 124; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore
47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 675.
Cassia alata L.
Shrubs, 1—2(—5) m tall. Leaves: rachis orange and widely grooved
above; pinnae in 8-20 pairs, oblong-elliptic but distal pairs obovate, 5—15
by 3-8 cm , veins pubescent below, petiolules c. 5 mm long; petiole 2—3 cm
long; stipules brownish-red. Raceme 25—80 by 4-6 cm. Flowers: bracts 2.5—
3 by 1.5-2 cm; sepals obovate, 1.5-1.8 by 0.7—1 cm; petals clawed, limb
ovate to oblong, rarely obovate, 1.8-2.5 by 1-1.6 cm (including 2-4 mm
long claw); stamens 7, unequal, largest 2: filaments laterally compressed,
5—6 by 2 x 1 mm, anthers swollen, curved, 12-13 mm long, central 4:
filaments and anthers 3-4 mm long, lowest one: filament 0.5-1 mm long,
anther 4-5 mm long, staminodes 3; ovary green, falcate with grooved sides,
15-20 by 2 mm, minute pubescent, style c. 7 mm long, stigma small, pedicel
4-5 mm long. Legume green turning black, tetragonal, 10-15 by 1.5-2 cm
(including 4-8 mm wide wings). Seeds c. 50, quadrangular, flat, 7-8 by 5-8
mm.
Distribution — Singapore: common in abandoned kampongs; Island
Club Road, Rochester Park, Old Upper Thomson Road (end of Kallang
River), Pulau Tekong (South), Sungei Mandai Kechil (Kampong Fatimah),
Yishun Ave 6; previously collected in Ang Mo Kio and Choa Chu Kang.
It is probably native in the rivers of the Guianas and periphery of the
Orinoco and Amazon basins in Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela. It became
fully established in Java by the middle of the 17th century (Irwin and
Barneby, 1982).
92 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Ecology — Found near riverbanks or margins of ponds and ditches
in abandoned kampongs, often in groups or scattered. It may be branched
or not, commonly procumbent, establishing itself over a small area by
leaning and producing erect shoots. The leaves are thigmonastic and
photonastic, turning up during the hottest and sunniest hours of the day, in
rainy weather and in the evenings. The legumes rattle when shaken.
Uses — This species has been used as an effective remedy for
ringworm and other cutaneous diseases (Burkill, 1935). The leaves are
also taken internally as a laxative, astringent, expectorant, purgative
taenifuge, tonic and mixed with lime juice as an anthelmintic, the flowers
are taken internally as a tonic for skin diseases, the seeds are taken internally
for skin diseases, the bark contains tanning material, the roots used in
West Africa for tattooing or tribal markings and the leaves contain
chrysophanic acid (2.2%) and are used as an antiparasitic (Duke, Reed &
Weder, 1981a). Burkill (1935) also mentioned that the roots are used
internally for constipation and externally for ringworm and that the toasted
leaves along with beans of Glycine max, are sometimes made into a drink
similar to coffee. The plant may poison stock, and is sometimes a weed in
pastures as it may rapidly reduce the area available for grazing as livestock
will not eat the plant (Verdcourt, 1979).
2. S. hirsuta (L.) Irwin & Barneby var. hirsuta
Phytologia 44 (1979) 499; Sp. pl. (1753) 378; Ridl., J. Straits Branch Asiat.
Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de Wit, Webbia 11
(1955) 250, 251; M.R. Hend., Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic. (1959) 96; H. Keng, Gdns’
Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; Irwin & Barneby, Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35
(1982) 434; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Randell, J. Adelaide
Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 42; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; I.M.
Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19
(1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 124; I.M. Turner,
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males.
1:12 (1996) 679.
Cassia hirsuta L.
Herbs to 2 m tall; hirsute all over. Leaves: rachis 5-17 cm long;
pinnae in 3-—5(-7) pairs, laminas ovate-elliptic, 2-12 by 1-3.5 cm, apex
acute to acuminate, petiolules c. 2 mm long; petiole 3-6 cm long; stipules
7-15 x 1 mm. Raceme 2-5(-8)-flowered. Flowers: bracts 3-5 mm long;
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 93
sepals unequal, outer 2: ovate, 3-7 by 3-4 mm, villose outside; inner 3:
obovate, 7-10 by 4-6 mm; petals 9-17 by 7-11 mm (including 1-2 mm long
claw), limb obovate to orbicular; stamens 7, largest 2: filaments winged, 4—
6 mm long, anthers curved, 6 mm long, beaked; central 4: similar but half
as long, lowest 1: as long as the largest; ovary + falcate, 5-8 mm long; style
1.5-2.5 mm long; stigma subapical, ciliate; pedicel 1-2 cm long. Legume
grey brown, + straight, flattened, sides grooved, 10-14 by 0.3-0.5 cm, hirsute.
Seeds 50-100 per legume, 2—3 by 1 mm.
Distribution — Singapore: rare; previously collected in Geylang, Pasir
Panjang, Yio Chu Kang. Origin in tropical South America; long naturalized
in the Old World wet tropics (Irwin and Barneby, 1982).
Ecology — Along roadsides, railways, in old kampongs or abandoned
plantations and farmland.
Uses — This species is used as green manure and to treat herpes
(Heyne, 1927). The leaves are eaten steamed (Ochse, 1931).
Notes — Two varieties, var. puberula and var. hirsuta, are recognized
in the Malesian area (Larsen and Hou, 1996b); the former found only in
the Phillipines, has arched legumes and in the revision of de Wit (1955) is
synonymous with Cassia leptocarpa Benth. In the use of the keys given by
Larsen and Hou (1996b) to distinguish the varieties, it is important to
examine mature legumes as immature ones are + arched as in var. puberula.
3. S. obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby
mee. Y. bot, (adn 35 (1982) 252;) Sp. pl. (1753) 377; Ridl.y J. Straits
Branch Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de
Wit, Webbia 11 (1955) 254; Brenan, Kew Bull (1958) 248; H. Keng, Gdns’
Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663;
Randell, J. Adelaide Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 45; J.B. Hacker, A guide to
herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland (1990) 96; H. Keng, Concise
Fl. Singapore (1990) 33; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore
natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45
(1993) 124; Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen &
Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996) 681.
Cassia obtusifolia L.
Herbs or subshrubs to 2 m tall. Leaves: rachis 1.5—3 cm long, adaxial
94 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
gland c. 2 mm long; pinnae in 3 pairs, laminas obovate, 1.5—5 by 0.7-3 cm,
increasing in size distally, membranous, pubescent below, base cuneate,
petiolule 1-2 mm; petiole 1.5—3 cm; stipules linear, 5-20 by 0.5-1 mm,
setaceous. Raceme 1—2(-3)-flowered on ac. 2 mm long peduncle. Flowers:
bracts linear, c. 5 mm long; sepals ovate, subequal, 0.6—0.9 byx 0.3-0.5,
puberulous; petals subequal, 0.7—2 by 0.4-1.2 cm (including 0.5-1.5 mm
long claw), limb obovate; stamens 7, filaments 1-2 mm long, anthers
unequal, largest 3: 4-5 mm long, central 4: 2.5—-3.5 mm long, staminodes 0-
3; ovary falcate, 7-13 by 0.5-1 mm, pubescent; style 2-3 mm long; stigma
truncate, ciliate; pedicel pubescent. Legume brown, falcate, flattened, 11—
23 by 0.5 cm, puberulous. Seeds 20-30(-50) per legume, brown, rhombic
to ovoid, 3-5 by 2 by 2 mm, smooth.
Distribution — Singapore: uncommon; previously collected in Bukit
Kallang and Tanglin. Probably native to the Americas and rare in Malesia
(Larsen and Hou, 1996b).
Ecology — In old kampungs or abandoned plantations and farmland.
Uses — The leaves used as a vegetable, treatment for skin problems
and as a cure for vomitting and stomach-ache while the roots are used for
constipation (Burkill, 1935).
Notes — This species is closely related to Senna tora such that some
authors regarded them as conspecific (e.g., Bentham, 1871). However, de
Wit (1955) separated them into distinct taxa based mainly on foliar glands,
pedicel length and scent. Brenan (1958) further distinguished the two
species on differences in the width of the areoles of their seeds and
emphasized the difference in the stamens.
4. S. occidentalis (L.) Link
Handb. 2 (1831) 140; Sp. pl. (1753) 377; Ridl., J. Straits Branch Asiat. Soc.
33 (1900) 74; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de Wit, Webbia 11
(1955) 256; M.R. Hend., Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic. (1959) 99; H. Keng, Gdns’
Bull. Singapore 27 (1974) 258; Irwin & Barneby, Mem. N. Y. bot. Gdn 35
(1982) 436; R.T. Corlett, J. Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Randell, J. Adelaide
Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 41; Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes
of Queensland (1990) 97; H. Keng, Concise Fl. Singapore. (1990) 33; I.M.
Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19
(1990) 72; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull. Singapore 45 (1993) 124; Turner,
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, Fl. Males.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 95
m
Figure 10. Senna occidentalis (L.) Link. a. Flowering and fruiting branch; b. Side view of
flower; c. Isolated staminode; d. One of four middle stamens; e. One of three upper stamens; f.
Isolated carpel on hypanthium with lowermost staminode attached on hypanthium and tip of
pedicel; g. Isolated sepal; h. Isolated standard petal A.H.B. Loo, A.Loo 070); i. Seed. (Abu
Kassim s.n.). Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby. j. One of three largest stamens showing
bottle-neck below apex. (R. W. Hullett S. N.). Senna tora (L.) Roxb. k. One of three largest
stamens showing abruptly rounded apex; |. Leaf; m. Falcate legume. (P. W. Wong 2717). —
Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin & Barneby var. hirsuta. n. Leaf; 0. Young legume; p. Isolated carpel
with lowermost anther attached on hypanthium and pedicel. (Abu Kassim s.n.)
96 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
1:12 (1996) 681.
Cassia occidentalis L.
Herbs to subshrubs, 0.5—2 m tall. Leaves: rachis 7-10 cm long, with a
puberulous groove; pinnae in 3—5(-6) pairs, laminas ovate-elliptic, 3-10.5
by 2-3.5 cm, petiolules 3-4 mm; petiole 3-6 cm long, gland glossy purple;
stipules 3-20 by 2-3 mm. Raceme 2-4-flowered on a 2-5 mm long peduncle.
Flowers: bracts 8 by 3-4 mm; sepals unequal, 2 ovate, 6-8 by 4-6 mm, 3
obovate to orbicular, 6-11 by 6-7 mm; petals unequal, 3 orbicular to widely
obovate, 12-15 by 10-15 mm, 2 obovate, c. 12-17 by 7-9 mm, all excluding
1-2 mm long claw; stamens 6, largest 2: filaments 6-9 mm long, anthers 5—
6 mm long, central 4: filaments 3-4 mm long, anthers 3-5 mm long,
staminodes 4; ovary green, 1-2 cm long, pubescent; style 4-5 mm long;
stigma lateral, ciliate; pedicel c. 1 cm long. Legume brown with pale
margins, + straight, 10-12 by 0.5—1 cm, glabrous to glabrescent. Seeds 30-
50 per legume, flat, 3-4 mm in diam., smooth.
Distribution — Singapore: uncommon; East Coast Road, School of
Biological Sciences Garden, the National University of Singapore;
previously collected in Changi, Geylang and Jalan Bahar. This sp. is of
South American origin and probably naturalized in the Malesian area
(Larsen and Hou, 1996b).
Ecology — In old kampongs and abandoned farmland and plantations
and along roads or near houses.
Uses — The seeds may be used as a substitute for coffee, the young
leaves and legumes are eaten with rice usually as medicine, the leaves are
used to cure headache and toothache and alcoholic infusions are slightly
insecticidal (Burkill, 1935). The plant is used as green manure, as a
purgative, febrifuge with diuretic and sudorific properties, the roots and
leaves used as a substitute for quinine and the seeds and leaves used
externally to treat skin diseases and as an antiperiodic, and the roots are
used for snakebite and as an antidote for poisons (Duke, Reed & Weder,
1981b). In Senegal, the leaves are used to protect cowpea seeds (Vigna
unguiculata ) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)
(Liennard et al., 1993).
5. S. tora (L.) Roxb.
Fl. Ind. ed. 2, 2 (1832) 340; Sp. pl. (1753) 376; Prain, J. As. Soc. Beng. 66, i
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 97
(1897) 158, 475; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 618; de Wit, Webbia 11
(1955) 276; Brenan, Kew Bull (1958) 248; M.R. Hend., Mal. Wild. Fl. Dic.
(1959) 99; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 27 (1974) 258; R.T. Corlett, J.
Biogeog. 15 (1988) 657-663; Randell, J. Adelaide Bot. Gard. 11 (1988) 45;
J.B. Hacker, A guide to herbaceous and shrub legumes of Queensland
(1990) 102; H. Keng, Concise FI. Singapore (1990) 33; I.M. Turner, K.S.
Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 72; I.M.
Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 124; I.M. Turner, Gdns’ Bull.,
Singapore 47 (1995) 309; K. Larsen & Ding Hou, FI. Males. 1:12 (1996)
689.
Cassia tora L.
Erect herbs to subshrubs up to 1.5 m tall; puberulous to pubescent
all over. Leaves: rachis 1.5—2.5 cm long, glands c. 2 mm long; pinnae in 3
pairs, laminas obovate, 2—4.5 by 1—-2.5 cm, membranous, pubescent below,
apex rounded or obtuse, base cuneate to rounded, subequal, petiolule 2
mm long; petiole 1.5—-4 cm long; stipules 5-11 by 1 mm. Raceme axillary, 2-
flowered on a 2-5 mm long peduncle. Flowers: bracts 2-5 mm long; sepals
ovate, subequal, 4-7 by 2-4 mn, puberulous below; petals obovate, unequal,
8-10 by 5-6 mm; stamens 7, filaments 2-3 mm long, anthers unequal:
largest 3, c. 3 mm long, central 4: c. 1.5-2 mm long, staminodes 0-3; ovary
green, falcate, c. 7 mm long, densely pubescent; style c. 2 mm long; stigma
ciliate; pedicel pubescent. Legume light brown, falcate, flattened, 10-15.5
by 0.2-0.5 cm, puberulous. Seeds 20-30 per legume, glossy light brown,
rhomboidal, 4-5 by 2.5 by 2 mm.
Distribution — Singapore: uncommon; previously found in Pulau
Ubin, Tanglin. Its origin is uncertain but is strictly palaeotropic in
occurrence. It is common throughout Malesia at lower altitudes (Larsen
and Hou, 1996b).
Ecology — In old kampongs or abandoned plantations and farmland.
Uses — Its leaves are used as a purgative, cure for coughs and against
ringworm, the young leaves are eaten as a vegetable, the seeds contain
emodin and are applied for itching, used for boils and as an internal and
external medicine for eye diseases and the seeds are also used as a substitute
for coffee (Burkill, 1935).
98 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Sindora Mig.
Fl. Ind. Bat. Suppl. (1861) 287; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:18
(1949) 5; Watson & Dallwitz, Gen. Leg. — Caesalpinioideae (1983) 53;
Cowan & Polhill in Polhill & Raven (eds.) Adv. Leg. Syst. 1 (1981) 132.
Trees. Leaves paripinnate, 2—4-jugate; pinna laminas elliptic to
obovate, coriaceous, rarely subcoriaceous, midrib slightly grooved above,
secondary veins many, emerging at 60° or more from the midrib measured
from the apex, anastomosing to a thickened marginal vein, tertiary veins
finely reticulate, petiolules short; stipules foliaceous, caducous. Panicle
axillary or terminal. Flowers bisexual, zygomorphic; bracts and bracteoles
small, caducous; sepals narrowly overlapping, 4, spinescent or not, strigose
inside, pubescent outside; petal 1, fleshy; androecium of 9 connate stamens
and staminodes and 1 uppermost free staminode, the lower 9 filaments
shortly, obliquely and basally connate into a hirsute sheath, the 2 uppermost
ones of the 9 with elongated filaments and dorsifixed and longitudinally
dehiscent anthers, the other 7 lower filaments shorter with or without
small, imperfect anthers; ovary subsessile, 2—5-ovuled, pubescent; style
filiform, recurved; stigma small; pedicel short, pubescent. Legume elliptic
to orbicular, flat, woody, armed or not, dehiscent, beak curved. Seeds 1-3
per legume, black, shiny, each set on a large fleshy aril; cotyledons split,
funicle curving. |
Distribution — A genus of 18-20 spp. in West Africa and South-east
Asia and 15 spp. occur in Malesia (Hou, 1996e). In Singapore there are
two indigenous species.
Ecology — Coastal beach forest to further inland in primary forest.
Uses — Mainly as timber. See under species.
Key to the Species
la. Lower surface of pinna glossy, glabrous except at the midrib; rachis
and petiole both glabrous. Sepals inermous outside; ovary inermous.
Leeuine Unarmed 1a ounce eee ee 1. S. coriacea
1b. Lower surface of pinna dull, puberulous to pubescent all over; rachis
and petiole pubescent to puberulous. Sepals with spiny outgrowths
on the upper half outside; ovary shortly spinescent. Legume densely
armed. with, spines to 4mm long. hii eee 2. S. wallichii
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 99
1. S. coriacea (Baker) Prain
J. Asiat.. Soc. Beng. 66 11 (1897) 206, 482; Baker in J. D. Hook., FI. Brit.
India 2 (1878) 275; Ridl., Fl. Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 639; Whitmore, Tree
fl. Malaya 1 (1972) 271; de Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:18 (1949) 30; K.
Larsen, S.S. Larsen & J.E. Vidal in Fl. Thailand 4 (1984) 98; I.M. Turner,
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 310; Ding Hou, Fl. Males. 1:12 (1996)
697.
Trees 18-33 m tall; trunk cylindric, dbh 31-95 cm, buttresses to 60
cm high. Leaves: rachis 5.5—-12(-14) cm long; pinna laminas elliptic or
ovate, rarely obovate, (3.5—)5—10(—15) by (2.5—)3-5(-7.5) cm, glossy above,
apex acute to acuminate, rarely shortly-acuminate, base acute to obtuse;
petiolules c. 5 mm long; petiole 2.5-4 cm long. Panicle 20-30 cm long,
lateral branches to 7 cm long, + zig-zagging. Flowers: bracts and bracteoles
ovate-lanceolate, 1.5—3 mm long; sepals yellow, elliptic or lanceolate, 6.5—
7.5 by 2.5-3 mm; petal yellow to red, obovate to oblong, 5—7.5 by 2-4 mm,
pubescent outside, margins villous; stamens basally connate to c. 3 mm
high, free filaments and staminode to 12 mm long, 2 largest anthers ellipsoid,
2.5—3.5 by 1.5 mm long, the rest to 1.5 mm long; ovary + ellipsoid, 3-4 by 2
mm, woolly along the suture, 4—5-ovuled; style to 11 mm long, glabrous;
pedicel 1-2.5 mm long. Legume ellipsoid or rarely broadly ellipsoid, 7—10
by 4-6 cm, beak to c. 1 cm long. Seeds 2-3 per legume, black, compressed,
suborbicular, c. 2 by 2 cm, aril c. 2 by 2 cm.
Distribution — Singapore: rare; Bukit Kallang, Bukit Timah, Nee
Soon Swamp Forest. Peninsular Thailand; Malesia: Sumatra (East coast),
Peninsular Malaysia (widespread), Borneo (Sabah, Kalimantan) (Hou,
1996e).
Ecology — Primary rain forest or in fresh water swamp forest.
Uses — This species considered the best timber in the genus along
with Sindora velutina (Whitmore, 1973). The wood oil collected from the
tree is used for medicinal purposes (Burkill, 1935).
Notes — This species is a new record for the flora of Singapore. It
was first discovered in 1994 by Ali bin Ibrahim in Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
2. §. wallichii Benth.
In Hook., Icon. Pl. 11 (1867) sub t. 1018 excl. t. 1017; Baker in J.D. Hook.,
Fl. Brit. India 2 (1879) 268; Prain., J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 66, ii (1897) 203,
204, 481, 482; Ridl., J. Straits Brch R. Asiat. Soc. 33 (1900) 75; Ridl., FI.
100 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Malay Penins. 1 (1922) 637, 638; Symington, Kew Bull. (1938) 75, 77; de
Wit, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenz.. 3:18 (1949) 76; Whitmore, Tree fl. Malaya 1
(1972) 273; Corner, Ways. Trees, 3rd ed. (1988) 445; H. Keng, Concise FI.
Singapore (1990) 39; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore
natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 73; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45
(1993) 124; Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 47 (1995) 310; Ding Hou, FI.
Males. 1:12 (1996) 708.
Sindora intermedia (Baker) Prain
Trees to 30 m tall; trunk cylindric, dbh (0.7—)1-2 m. Leaves: rachis
(2—)4-6.5 cm long, pinna laminas elliptic to ovate or obovate, 3.3-9 by 2-
5.2 cm, upper surface sometimes puberulous, glossy, apex rounded to
broadly acuminate, base rounded; petiolules c. 4 mm long; petiole 1.5—2.5
cm long; stipules falcate, 10-17 by 4-8 mm. Panicle 6-25 cm long, lateral
branches to 5 cm long, zig-zagging. Flowers: bracts and bracteoles
lanceolate, to 4 mm long; sepals yellow-green, lanceolate, c. 10 by 3-4 mm;
petal elliptic, c. 8 by 3 mm, outside hirsute; stamens unequal, 2 largest:
filaments c. 1.5 cm long, anthers 3.5 by 2 mm, 7 others: 0.5—0.7 cm long,
anthers c. 3 by 2 mm, staminode 1; ovary rhomboid, c. 5 by 4 mm; style c.
1.5 cm long; stigma capitate; pedicel to 5 mm long. Legume green turning
black, orbicular to irregularly elliptic, 4-9.5 cm across, beak to 9 mm long.
Seeds 1-3 per legume, surface with concentric lines, compressed,
suborbicular, 1—1.5 by 0.7 cm, aril yellow turning dark brown, c. 2 by 2 cm.
Distribution — Singapore: rare; Botanic Gardens’ Jungle, Bukit
Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle Falls), Changi Point, Fort Canning Hill,
Pulau Sakijang Pelepah, Upper Pierce Reservoir; previously found in Bukit
Timah Road. Sumatra (East Coast, Jambi, Palembang, Riau Archipelago),
Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo (Sabah, Kalimantan) (Hou, 1996e).
Ecology — Coastal beach forest to further inland in primary forest,
sometimes near streams, in groups or solitary. Seedlings can be found
near the parent tree. The exudate from the spines of the legume has a
strong citrus scent. The seeds are said to be dispersed by rodents which
eat the fleshy aril (Ridley, 1930). The aril is fleshy in unripe legumes that
have fallen to the ground but in ripe legumes the aril is dark brown and
very hard.
Uses — The commercial timber is known as sepetir as classified by
the Malaysian Timber Board; the pods are medicinal and the wood oil
used as an illuminant (Burkill, 1935).
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 101
Figure 11. Sindora wallichii Benth. a. Flowering branch with some newly formed legumes;
b. Left, inner surface of sepal, right - outer surface of sepal; c. 9 stamens basally connate into
a hirsute sheath; d. Ovary on stipe with one free uppermost staminode; e. Isolated petal
(adaxial); f. Abaxial view of pinna showing thickened marginal nerve and tertiary venation; g.
Legume; left, one valve removed to show arillate seed; right; outer surface of valve. (JF.
Maxwell 78-51)
102 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Notes — Corner (1988) believed that the famous tall tree that stood
at Changi and served as a navigational landmark to pilots until 1942,
belonged to this species.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Director, Singapore Botanic Gardens for the
loan of specimens as well as the use of herbarium and library facilities.
For loans of other specimens we are grateful to the Director, Forest
Research Institute Malaysia and the Director, Rijksherbarium, Leiden.
We should also like to express our appreciation to D. Hou, L. Watson, J.F.
Veldkamp, I.M. Turner and K. Larsen for advice and Ali bin Ibrahim and
Joseph Lai for field and herbarium assistance. This project was supported
by the National University of Singapore Research Grants RP930325 and
RP 960362.
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Southeast Asia Vol. 5, Prosea Foundation; Bogor, Indonesia; 161-—
166.
Rudd, V.E., 1991. Fabaceae (Leguminosae subfamily Caesalpinioideae. In:
M.D. Dassanayake and F.R. Fosberg (Editors). A Rev. Handb. fl.
Ceylon. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam; 48—49.
Taubert, P. (1894). Leguminosae. In: Engler, A. and Prantl, K. E. Natiirl.
PflFam., 3, 70-396.
Turner, I. M., Chua, K. S. and Tan, H. T. W. (1990). A checklist of the
native and naturalized vascular plants of the Republic of Singapore.
J. Singapore natn. Acad. Sci. 18 & 19, 58-88.
Turner, I. M. (1993). The names used for Singapore plants since 1900.
Gdns’ Bull., Singapore, 45, 116-125.
Verdcourt, B. (1979). A manual of New Guinea legumes. Bor. Bull. 11,
11-124.
Whitmore, T.C. (1973). Leguminosae. Tree fl. Malaya 1, 237-274.
Whistler, W.A. (1992). Flowers of the Pacific island seashore. Isle Botanica,
Honolulu, Hawaii; SO.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 6
Caesalpiniaceae 105
List of Caesalpiniaceae collected in the Republic of Singapore
(includes collector’s/s’ name, number, date of collection, location, state of specimen.)
Bauhinia semibifida Roxb. var. 1996, Western Catchment Area; A.H.B.
semibifida Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan,
A.H.B. Loo, I.M. Turner, Eel Seah, ALoo
001, 6 July 1996;A.H.B. Loo, Eel Seah,
ALoo 007,12 Jul 1996, Nee Soon Swamp
Forest, flowering; A.H.B. Loo, C. Boo, J.
Yong, L. Chen, I.M. Turner, Eel Seah, ALoo
017(flower buds), 018 (fruiting), 019
(stem), Nee Soon Firing Range; T. M.
Leong, ALoo 039, 15 Aug 1996, Rifle
Range Road, seedling; B. Y.H. Lee, ALoo
071, Sep 1996, Macritchie Reservoir,
flowering; A.H.B. Loo, B.Y.H. Lee, ALoo
078, 11 Oct 1996, Upper Pierce Reservoir
(Resam Path), flower buds;A.H.B. Loo, Ali
Ibrahim, Eel Seah, Joseph Lai, ALoo 084,
29 Oct 1996, Rifle Range Road (Near Bukit
Kallang), flowering.
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
A. H. B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H. T.
W. Tan, ALoo 044, 26 Aug 1996, Pulau
Sakijang Pelepah, male flowers; A.H.B.
Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan,
ALoo 057, 3 Sep 1996, Pulau Sakijang
Pelepah, male flowers; A.H.B. Loo, B.C.
Soong, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan,
S1019, 27 Sep 1996, Pulau Semakau (West),
fruiting.
Caesalpinia crista L.
A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W.
Tan, ALoo 049, 29 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong
(Kg. Salabin), fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Eel
Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 055, 3 Sep 1996,
Pulau Sakijang Pelepah vegetative; N.
Tanaka, L. Chen, C. Boo, ALoo 005, 009,
Sungei Mandai Kechil, Kg. Fatimah; A.H.B.
Loo, ALoo 010, 18 July 1996, Sembawang
end, fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel
Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 025 (stem), ALoo
(26 (fruiting), ALoo 027 (seedling), 9 Aug
ALoo 028, 15 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong (Kg.
Unum), vegetative; A.H.B. Loo, Ali
Ibrahim, Eel Seah, A Loo 048, 22 Aug 1996,
Pulau Tekong Kechil, vegetative; A.H.B.
Loo, Ali Ibrahim, B.C. Soong, Eel Seah,
H.T.W. Tan, A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, B.C.
Soong, Eel Seah, H.T:W. Tan, ALoo 080,
22 Oct 1996, Pulau Terkukor, vegetative;
ALoo 081, 22 Oct 1996, Pulau Terkukor,
seedling.
Caesalpinia sumatrana Roxb.
A.H.B. Loo, J.A.C.P.L. Looi, ALoo 058, 9
Sep 1996, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve
(Cave Path), sapling.
Chamaecrista leschenaultiana (DC.)
Degener
N. Tanaka, C. Boo, L. Chen, ALoo 043, Jul
1996, Pulau Ubin, vegetative.
Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.)
Greene
A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 011, 22 July 1996, Old
Upper Thomson Road, flowering and
fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah,
H.T.W. Tan, A Loo 034, 20 Aug 1996, Pulau
Tekong, flowering and fruiting; A.H.B.
Loo, ALoo 072, 11 Oct 1996, Yishun Ave
6, whole plant, nodules; A.H.B. Loo, ALoo
073, 11 Oct 1996, whole plant, nodules;
A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 074, 07911 Oct 1996,
Yishun Ave 6;A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 085, Nov
1996, Old Upper Thomson Road,
flowering and fruiting.
Dialium platysepalum Baker
A.H.B. Loo, T.M. Leong, A Loo 060, 19 Sep
1996, Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle
Falls), ‘wallichii’, vegetative.
106
Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
A.H.B. Loo, Eel Seah, D. Wee, Karen,
ALoo 020, 1 Aug 1996, Sungei Buloh
Nature Reserve, vegetative; A.H.B. Loo, Ali
Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, A Loo 024,
9 Aug 1996, Western Catchment Area,
fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah,
ALoo 037, 22 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong
Kechil, fruiting, ALoo 038, vegetative.
Koompassia malaccensis Benth.
A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 059, Jul 1996, Botanic
Gardens’ Jungle, fruits picked up from the
ground; A.H.B. Loo, T.M. Leong, ALoo
(63, Bukit Timah Nature reserve (Jungle
Falls), samaras and seedlings.
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K.
Heyne
A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 003, 12 July, Mandai
Road, fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim,
Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 015, 3 Aug
1996, Pulau Hantu, fruiting; Ali Ibrahim,
Eel Seah, ALoo 016, 3 Aug 1996, West
Coast Road, flowering; A.H.B. Loo, Eel
Seah, ALoo 021, 6 Aug 1996, Pulau
Sakijang Bendera, fruiting; A.H.B. Loo,
ALoo 023, 7 Aug 1996, NUS Campus,
flowering and fruiting; Ali Ibrahim, Eel
Seah, ALoo 036, 22 Aug 1996, Pulau
Tekong Kechil, vegetative, wild?; Ali
Ibrahim, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo 051,
29 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong, flowering;
A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, B.C Soong, Eel
Seah, H.T.W. Tan, $1010, 27 Sep 1996,
Pulau Semakau (West), fruiting, wild?;
A.H.B. Loo, B.C Soong, Eel Seah, H.T.W.
Tan, $1023, 27 Sep 1996, Pulau Semakau
(West), sapling; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim,
B.C Soong, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo
067, 1 Oct 1996, Pulau Subar Darat,
fruiting; ALoo 082, 22 Oct 1996, Pulau
Terkukor, vegetative; A.H.B. Loo, ALoo
086, Nov 1996, NUS Campus, flowering
and fruiting.
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Senna alata (L.) Roxb.
N. Tanaka, L. Chen, C. Boo, ALoo 002, 13
July 1996, Sungei Mandai Kechil, fruiting;
B.Y H. Lee, ALoo 032, 19 Aug 1996, North
Bouna Vista Road, flowering, A.H.B. Loo,
ALoo 033, 19 Aug 1996, North Bouna Vista
Road, flowering; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim,
B.C Soong, Eel Seah, H.T.W. Tan, ALoo
035, 20 Aug 1996, Pulau Tekong, vegetative;
A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 075, 076, 11 Oct 1996,
Island Club Road, flowers and fruits;
A.H.B. Loo, ALoo 077, 11 Oct 1996,
Yishun Ave 6, fruiting.
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
AH.B. Loo, ALoo 029, 030, 031, 16 Aug
1996, East Coast Road, flowering and
fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah,
ALoo 041, 22 Aug 1996, East Coast Road,
flowering and fruiting; A.H.B. Loo, ALoo
070, 8 Oct 1996, School of Biologial
Sciences Garden (NUS), flowering and
fruiting.
Sindora coriacea (Baker) Prain
A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, Joeseph
Lai, ALoo 083, 29 Oct 1996, Bukit Kallang
(Summit), vegetative.
Sindora wallichii Benth.
A.H.B. Loo, Ali Ibrahim, Eel Seah, ALoo
054, 29 Aug 1996, Netheravon Road,
fruiting; ALoo 063, 19 Sep 1996, Bukit
Timah Nature Reserve (Jungle Falls),
seedlings and fallen fruits.
The following species were not found
in the field:
Caesalpinia tortuosa Roxb.
Cynometra ramiflora L. var. ramiflora;
Dialium indum L.var. bursa (de Wit) Rojo
Dialium indum L. var. indum
Senna hirsuta (L.) Irwin and Barneby var.
hirsuta;
Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin and Barneby
Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 107-110.
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 7
LIMNOCHARITACEAE
J. P. S. CHoo! AND H.T.W. Tan?
‘Block 108, Lorong 1 Toa Payoh, #05-298,
Singapore 310108, Republic of Singapore
*School of Biological Sciences, The National University of Singapore
Singapore 119260, Republic of Singapore
Limnocharis Humb. and Bonpl.
Pl. aequinoct. 1 (1808) 116; M.R. Hend., Malayan Wild Flowers,
Monocotyledons (1954) 202-203; Steenis, Fl. Males. 1:5 (1954) 118-120;
Backer & Bakh.f., Fl. Java 3 (1968) 1-2; H. Keng, Orders and Families of
Malayan Seed Plants (1969) 287; R.R. Haynes & Holm-Niels., Fl. Neotropica
56 (1992) 8-12.
Emergent, substrate-rooted, fleshy, aerenchyma-rich, laticiferous,
aquatic herbs; stem very short. Leaves simple, basal, glabrous, long-
petiolate, exstipulate. J/nflorescence an umbel-like cincinnus, bracteate.
Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, pedicellate, bracteate; sepals 3, persistent;
petals 3; staminodes numerous, tricyclic; stamens numerous, dicyclic; carpels
up to 20, fused marginally and basally to form a verticil, placentation
laminar; stigma sessile. Follicetum enclosed by the persistent sepals; follicles
up to 20. Seeds many per follicle.
Distribution, Ecology and Uses — See under species.
Notes — Limnocharis is often regarded as monotypic, although
Duchassaing in Grisebach (Bonplandia 6 (1858) 11) recognised L. laforestii
as a second species (Haynes and Holm-Nielsen, 1992).
Limnocharis has traditionally been placed in the Butomaceae but
more recent treatments follow Cronquist (1981) and his narrow concept of
the family. The Limnocharitaceae differ from the Butomaceae s.s. by the
presence of laticifers, “petiolated leaves that have a terminal pore, a non-
petaloid calyx, thin and evanescent petals, and curved seeds and embryos”
(Haynes and Holm-Nielsen, 1992).
1. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau
Abh. naturwiss. Ver. Bremen 2 (1869) 2; Steenis, Fl. Males. 1:5 (1954) 120;
108 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Backer & Bakh/f., Fl. Java 3 (1968) 1-2; H. Keng, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore
40 (1987) 113; ILM. Turner, K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan, J. Singapore Nat.
Acad. Sci. 18 & 19 (1990) 63; R.R. Haynes & Holm-Niels., Flora Neotropica
56 (1992) 8-10; ILM. Turner, Gdns’ Bull., Singapore 45 (1993) 48.
Alisma flava L.
Herb to 1 m tall. Leaves: lamina ovate to suborbicular, to 30 by 23
cm, with 1 midrib and 7-17 secondary veins, apex round or apiculate, with
a purple-margined hydathode at the abaxial tip; petiole trigonous, to 85 cm
long and c. 8 mm in diam.; sheath to 27 cm long. Inflorescence 3-9-
flowered, after fruiting becoming stolon-like and forming vegetative shoots;
peduncle to 71 cm long and c. 1.5 cm in diam., apically trigonous, basally
flattened, sheathless; bracts ovate, fugacious, outermost bracts 2, to c. 3.0
by 2.5 cm, subpedicellate supernumerary buds occasionally develop in their
axils in mature inflorescences. Flowers cockroach-scented; sepals to 22 by
17 mm; petals with a cream margin and yellow base, suborbicular, to 23 by
25 mm, membranous, fugacious; staminodes yellow, stamens with cream
anthers and yellow filaments; carpels cream, laterally compressed; pedicels
toc. 5.5 by 1 cm. Follicetum subglobose, to 15 mm diam.; follicles yellowish
when ripe, semi-circular, laterally compressed with thickened peripheral
wall, dehiscent. Seeds brown, U-shaped, with thin transverse ridges and
broad transverse spines, to c. 1 mm long. (Figure 1.)
Distribution — This species from tropical South America, is locally
naturalized and was first recorded in Singapore in 1930 (Corlett, 1988). It
was recently collected in Choa Chu Kang Muslim Cemetry, Jalan Ulu
Seletar, Mandai Road, Marina East and Neo Tiew Road.
Ecology — Aquatic or marsh plants usually found growing in or
along water margins, e.g., drains, ditches, freshwater pools or ponds in
farm- or wasteland and along roadsides. Usually a perennial, it can be
annual through drying of its habitat (Backer & Bakhuizen f,, 1965). Its
presence indicates fertile soils (Ochse, 1931). Flowers open in the morning
and fade by afternoon (van Steenis, 1954).
The peduncle of an old inflorescence grows downwards where, on
contact with water or mud, it develops leaves and roots so serving as an
effective means of vegetative propagation (Backer & Bakhuizen f, 1965).
Uses — In West Java, young leaves and inflorescences are eaten
and sold in markets (Burkill, 1935), and are eaten raw or cooked with rice
by the Javanese (Tanaka, 1976), and also eaten by the Malays (Burkill,
The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore Part 7 109
1mm
=-'s
iy 2 ll
Tear
AUN elit
Lr ie nu Ta
ANON ag
tye » qi 4M,
VE
V7,
O0:-5mm
Pe er
Bie
eK
oon ray
pS BS J
“oF
es Ney ove a cual vy ee
- oxvets - «on ae caeaee beoe > 1
cae ee wend »
oe 5 : ‘ Wisi: =
x Oe ‘Anat 5
Fas ers rosa
ey “ye tea wer oF)
- ie PLY OREEE ae) ALAS
= =*-¥e OY geen ead
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5cm
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.
<1) \
0:-5cm
Figure 1. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau. a. Habit with two newly developed inflorescences
and one old inflorescence which has become stoloniferous with a rooting vegetative shoot at
its tip. b. Tip of the lamina showing the hydathode. c. A flower and buds of the inflorescence
and the peduncle tip. d. Half-flower. e. Follicetum enclosed by two of the three persistent
sepals, with one removed, at the tip of the pedicel. f. One follicle and seeds. g. Seed. Del.
J.P.S.Choo. P
70 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
1935). The raw lamina has a slightly bitter aftertaste. This plant was also
used as cattle fodder and green manure in Peninsular Malaysia (Burkill,
1935).
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Director, Singapore Botanic Gardens, for the use of
the herbarium and library facilities and for the financial support through
the National University of Singapore grant, RP 930325. We would also
like to thank Robert R. Haynes (University of Alabama) for determining
some of our specimens and K.P. Fong for field assistance.
References
Backer, C.A. & Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C. Jr. (1965). Flora of Java,
Vol. IIT, Wolters-Noordhoff N.V.; Groningen, the Netherlands; 1-2.
Burkill, I.H. (1935). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay
Peninsula, Vol. 2, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia; 1347.
Corlett, R.T. (1988). The naturalized flora of Singapore. J. Biogeog. 15,
657-663.
Cronquist, A. (1981). An integrated system of classification of flowering
plants, Columbia Univ. Press; New York; 1048-1049.
Haynes, R.R. and Holm-Nielsen, L.B. (1992). Flora Neotropica Monograph
56, the Limnocharitaceae, New York Botanical Garden; New York; 1-
34.
Keng, H. (1987). Annotated list of seed plants in Singapore (XI). Gdns’
Bull., Singapore 40, 113.
Ochse, J.J. (1931). Indische groenten (met inbegrip van aardvruchten en
kruiderijen) (met meder werking van R.C. Bakhuizen van den Brink);
Department Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel; Buitenzorg, Batavia
Centrum; 87-89, 612.
Steenis, C.G.G.J. van (1954). Butomaceae. FI. Males., Ser. 1, 5, 118-120.
Tanaka, T. (1976). Tanaka’s Cyclopedia of Edible Plants of the World;
Keigaku Publishing Co.; Tokyo; 431.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 111-118.
Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah, Borneo
Lim SHEH PING
Forest Research Centre, Forest Department,
Locked Bag 68, 90009 Sandakan
Sabah, Malaysia
and
RUTH KIEwW
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Cluny Road, Singapore 259569
Abstract
A map of the 59 limestone localities in the Malaysian state of Sabah, Borneo, is presented
together with a table with their co-ordinates, accepted name and the forest area in which
they occur.
Introduction
In investigating the limestone flora in Sabah, it became obvious that there
was no complete and convenient gazetteer to limestone localities. Limestone
hills had been surveyed for their caves with archaeological remains (T. and
B. Harrisson, 1971), for caves from which edible bird’s nests are collected
(Francis, 1987) or for their mollusc fauna (Vermeulen, 1996). None of
these sources covers even half the limestone localities. The section on hill
and mountain peaks in the Sabah Gazetteer (Tangah and Wong, 1995)
lists two limestone hills and gives their altitudes (Dulong Lambu attains
229 m a.s.l. and Madai reaches 359 m) but without mention that they are
limestone.
In addition, there are discrepancies in names or the spelling of names.
Standardising names has therefore been an important part of this work.
For example, the name ‘Lobok Buaya’ cited by the Harrissons is not to be
found on any maps and it was necessary to retrace their route to the site
and confirm the accepted name with local villagers. The hill should be
called Baladut. Similarly, Batu Punan has been given as an alternative
name to Pun Batu, but the local villagers are adamant that it should be
called Pun Batu.
Tourist localities are also not accurate in their use of names. Thus
the hill in which the Gomantong Cave is located is Bukit Dulong Lambu
112 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
(not Bukit Gomantong) and the hill commonly called Batu Putih should
correctly be known as Batu Tulug (Batu Putih being the name of the
nearby village, not the hill itself).
Two limestone localities are not included in the gazetteer. One is a
mollusc site, ‘Kirk’s Cave, 8 km N of Lahad Datu’, for which no co-ordinates
are available (Vermeulen, 1996). It is not to be found on any map probably
because it is a ‘small hill hidden among oil palm estates’ and so would not
have shown up on aerial photographs if it did not emerge above the tree
canopy. Similarly, George Argent (pers. comm.) reports that there are a
few large limestone boulders in the river at Danum Valley (Sungai Palum
Tambun 4° 58’N 117°49’E), but the source of these has not been found.
Francis (1987) drew attention to the confusion about the number
and names of limestone hills in the Sapulut and Sinobang areas, which
until recently were very remote and inaccessible. Now the area is riddled
with a maze of logging roads and it was possible to visit the Sinobang area
on the Sungai Pinangah and obtain information from the local Muruts.
This revealed that the hills do not have proper names and that Batu Urun
(not a hill but a unique bowl-shaped sunken gorge) is a descriptive name,
which merely indicates that it is upriver (‘oron’ in the Murut language,
equivalent to ‘ulu’ in Malay) and Kelabangan meaning ‘a trail’ (‘labangan’
in Murut), is a long cliff face that intermittently outcrops along a stretch
about 3-km long (R. Kiew, unpublished data).
The gazetteer was compiled from the following three maps as no
single map included all the limestone hills. The mineral map is the most
complete.
1. The Soils of Sabah. 1974. Scale 1: 125,000. Published for the Sabah
Government by the British Overseas Development Administration (Land
Resources Division), U.K.
2. Mineral Distribution Map of Sabah. 1st edition, 1976. Scale 1: 500,000.
Compiled by K.M. Leong, published by The Geological Survey of Malaysia.
3. Geological Map of Sabah. 3rd edition, 1985. Scale 1: 500,000. Compiled
by P.S. Lim, published by Directorate of Mapping Malaysia. No. 36/87.
Some hills have no names on the maps and these are recorded as
unnamed in Table 1 and, where there is a village or river close by, this is
given in parenthesis. The position of all hills is shown in Figure 1, the
numbers corresponding to the numbered localities in Table 1. The Forest
Reserve in which the hill is found is also given, as this is important in
considering the conservation status of the limestone flora. The limestone
flora is extremely susceptible to burning, which destroys not only the
a NSC
‘(soruenb [eloIOWIUIOS UT Poj}da][O9 OIv S}SOU SPIIQ YOIYM WOLF S[[IY S}VOIPUL SOTIIID PI[OS -T 9[QUL Ul 9SOy} O} spuodsa1109 soniTeso] oy} JO IoquINNY)
“YEQUS UI SAIPTTEIO] DUOJSOWITT *T BANSLY
113
Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah Borneo
114 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
vegetation but also the soil layer, which when no longer protected by
vegetation is washed away by subsequent rains leaving the rock bare (Kiew,
1991). The original vegetation on hills that suffered burning in the 1982-83
drought has still not recovered. Protection against fire by a buffer zone of
forest is therefore essential for the conservation of the limestone flora.
Hills that are not located within Wildlife Reserves or Virgin Jungle Reserves
are extremely vulnerable to fire.
Fifty nine limestone localities are listed here. They include the raised
coral limestone found on islands, for example in the extreme north and the
south east of Sabah, and the inland tower karst hills. It is in these latter
that the caves are found.
While we can be confident that all the major hills are listed, there
remains the possibility that smaller outcrops (such as ‘Kirk’s cave’
mentioned above), which do not emerge above the forest canopy and so
cannot be identified from aerial photographs remain to be mapped.
However, based on our field survey their number is likely to be very small.
Acknowledgements
The authors are extremely grateful to World Wide Fund for Nature
Malaysia for funding under Project No. MYS 328/ 95; to Dr Wong Khoon
Meng, Mr Robert C. Ong and staff at the Forest Research Centre for
providing facilities; to G. Argent, A. Lamb and J.J. Vermeulen for answering
queries.
References
Francis, C.M. 1987. The Management of Edible Bird’s Nest Caves in Sabah.
Wildlife Section, Sabah Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah.
Harrisson, T. and B. Harrisson. 1971. The Prehistory of Sabah. Sabah
Society Journal. 4:1-272.
Kiew, R. 1991. The limestone flora. In: R. Kiew (ed.), The State of Nature
Conservation in Malaysia. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia. pp. 42-50.
Tangah, J. and K.M. Wong. 1995. A Sabah Gazetteer. Sabah Forest
Department and Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Malaysia.
Vermeulen, J.J. 1996. Notes on the non-marine molluscs of the island of
Borneo, 8. Basteria 60: 87-138.
:
|
Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah Borneo BLS
Table 1. Gazetteer of limestone localities in Sabah
Name of Locality Coordinate Forest Reserve
1. Tanjung Batu 5°36’30”N ~
118°20°00”E
2. Ulu Sungai 5°28'45”N -
Resang 113° 23°00" E
3. Panggi 5°32 157 N Panggi FR
(Bt. Temanggong bis is ov
Besar)
4. Batu Temanggong 5°32’00”N -
Kecil 118°18°00"E
5. Keruak (Cave) a ol 30" Keruak VJR
LIS? L/OO"E
6. Bod Tai Cave 5°31°45”N Bod Tai VJR
118°13°00"E
7. Unnamed 5°32’45”N -
1189930"
8. Baladut 5°26’30”N -
118°8’°00”E
9. Kuntos 3° 33°00"N Gomantong Protected FR
118°4°30”E
10. Bukit Dulong yo) B07N Gomantong VJR
Lambu 118°415”E
(Gomantong Cave)
11. Batu Batangan 5°28:00"°N -
118°6°00”E
12. Batu Materis 5°307307N _
Lis 213s E
13. Batu Bunod 5°31’45”N ta
L1S°2)45"
14. Batu Supu 5°29’°00”N Pin—Supu VJR
Lig sais: E
116
15. Batu Tulug
16. Tabin
(Batu Quoin)
17. Unnamed
(Tabin)
18. Unnamed
(Tabin)
19. Unnamed
(Tabin)
20. Batu Belas
21. Tempadong
22. Upak
23. Unnamed
24. Gunung Madai
25. Batu Supad
26. Bukit Baturong
27. Batu Tengar Cave
(Segarong)
& Pababola Cave
(Sipit)
28. Semorang Cave
(Sipit)
29. Selangan Island
(Sakong)
5°25’45”N
IL796'307E
5°18’00”"N
118°44°30”E
5°20°30”N
118°43°30”E
S°2100UN
118°40°30"E
SO ASIN
118°46°15”E
5°7'45”N
118°8’45”E
5°S’ 307 N
Uinomo® lay 2)
57h OOON,
118°3°45”E
4°50°30”N
118°4°45”E
4°43°00”N
Lier 915)
4°A42°15”"N
Lis hos"
4°42’°00"N
118°00’°30”E
4°34715”N
118°24’30”"E
4°33’30”"N
118°24°15”E
4°35’45”N
List23/0008
4°34°45”"N
113°30°00CE
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Pin-Supu VJR
Tabin Wildlife Sanctuary
Tabin Wildlife Sanctuary
Tabin Wildlife Sanctuary
Tabin Wildlife Sanctuary
Mensuli VJR
Madai—Baturong VJR
Madai—Baturong VJR
Madai—Baturong VJR
Segarong Protected FR
Segarong Protected FR
Segarong Protected FR
Selangan Protected FR
Gazetteer of Limestone Localities in Sabah Borneo
30.
alk.
32:
oa
34.
55.
36.
sie
38.
wo
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
Unnamed
(Kampung Ballong)
Pulau Pababag
(Sakong)
Bait Island
(Sakong)
Larapan Island
Tanjung Kapur
Bum Bum Island
Batu Pang
Sarupi
Batu Timbang
Melikop
Kelabangan
Batu Urun
Bandakan
Batu Punggul
Unnamed
(Labang)
Sambulyan
4°34°00”N
LES. 28)30"E
4°32’30"N
116°29'30"E
4°32’30"N
Lie 38 30°E
4°33745”
His"36°13"E
4°31°30”N
16°37 15" E
4°28°00”"N
118°40°00”E
4°27°00”"N
iS" 00" E
5°14’00”"N
hy 2s SOE
4°59°00”N
117°6°00”E
5°5’00”N
116°48°00”E
4°49°30”N
116°38°00”E
4°49°30”"N
116533007
4°43°45”°N
M630 00°E
4°38'45”"N
LiG?37:00"E
4°39°00”N
1167335457 E
4°43°30”N
£6733 5078
Pry
Pababag Protected FR
Batu Timbang VJR
Sg. Pinangah Commercial FR
Sg. Pinangah Commercial FR
Sapulut Commercial FR
Sapulut Commercial FR
Sapulut Commercial FR
118
46. Pun Batu
47. Pulun
48. Unnamed
(Sg. Pangi)
49. Lakutan
50. Burong Island
SL Labuan
52. Lian Cave
53. Mantanani Island
Besar
& Kecil
54. Unnamed
55. Unnamed
56. Melobang
57. Karakit
58. Kok Simpul
& Tg. Kalutan
59. Tanjung Timohing
(Balambangan)
4°48’00”"N
116717 0O"'E
4°46715”N
115°39°45”E
5°5’45”N
115°48°45”E
5°7’00”N
115°43°15”E
5°14°30”"N
Si ser E
5°18°45”N
11S" 1200"
5°29 S0 iN
116° 1630"E
6°43°30”"N
11.6°20°30"E
6°43°00"N
116°18’30°E
6°50°00”"N
116°49°00"E
PLOON
116°45°30"E
6°53°30"N
117°2’30"E
PTis™
1 BS Gao Bs) ss
PISRON
116°52’45”E
T1730" N
116°54’30”"E
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Sabah Forest Industries
Gunung Lumaku Protected FR /
Sabah Forest Industries
Sabah Forest Industries
Karakit VJR
Balambangan Protected FR
FR forest reserve; VJR virgin jungle reserve; — not found in forest reserve.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 119-141.
The Botany of the Islands of Mersing District, Johore,
Peninsular Malaysia. 1. The Plants and Vegetation of
Pulau Tinggi
I.M. TuRNER!, J.W.H. YONG?
School of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore
Singapore 119260
A. ZAINUDIN ISMAIL & A. LATIFF
Department of Botany
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract
A list of the vascular plant species found on Pulau Tinggi in the district of Mersing, Johore,
Peninsular Malaysia is presented. This has been prepared from herbarium collections in
Malaysia and Singapore and covers more than 500 species. A brief outline of the vegetation
of the island and the principal species in each vegetation type are given. Pulau Tinggi is
mostly covered with lowland dipterocarp forest. The island has good examples of several
coastal vegetation types which include the presence of a number of rare seashore species
including Argusia argentea, Manilkara kauki, Pouteria linggensis and Serianthes grandiflora.
Introduction
Pulau Tinggi (2° 18' N, 104° 7' E) is an island of roughly 14.5 km lying 13
km off the east coast of Johore. Tinggi rises abruptly to a height of 610 m
at its summit, with most of the slopes covered in forest. Turner et al. (1993)
provided a preliminary account of the botany of Pulau Tinggi. Subsequent
further research allows a more detailed report to be given here.
Flora
A list of the vascular plants recorded from Pulau Tinggi is given in Appendix
1. Records are taken from herbarium specimens in the Singapore Botanic
'Present Address: Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, Shimosakamoto, Otsu 520 0105, Japan
*Present Address: Environmental Biology Group, Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian
National University, G.P.O. Box 475, Canberra A.C.T. 2601, Australia
120 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Gardens (SING), School of Biological Sciences, National University of
Singapore (SINU), Forest Research Institute Malaysia (KEP) and
Department of Botany, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKMB). The
collections were made by J.B. Feilding who visited Pulau Tinggi in late
1892, I.H. Burkill who was there from 16 to 20 June 1915, Strugnell and
Mohd. Yasin in 1952, J. Sinclair in May 1954, F.S.P. Ng in April 1967, A.
Zainudin Ismail in 1990 and 1996, and groups from the National University
of Singapore in 1991, 1992 and 1996. The list consists of 510 native or
naturalized species and 62 cultivated ones.
Vegetation
The main vegetation on Pulau Tinggi is the tropical rain forest that covers
the upper slopes of the island. In and around the villages this has been
cleared to give way to cultivated areas. Close to the villages these are
permanent, higher up the clearings (ladangs) are often abandoned in a
form of shifting agriculture. Currently these ladangs are mostly abandoned,
probably reflecting a gradual reduction in the permanent population of
Pulau Tinggi in recent years, and a shift to employment in the holiday
resorts on the island. The seashores support a range of different vegetation
types, largely related to their substrate. The sandy beaches differ in their
plant community from the more frequent rocky ones. There are also two
areas of mangrove vegetation. On some of the coral reef flats there are
seagrass meadows. The distribution of the major terrestrial vegetation types
is shown in Fig. 1.
Forest
We probably know least about this vegetation type on Tinggi compared to
the others. The area of forest is extensive and penetrated by relatively few
trails, and collecting from tall trees is technically difficult. Therefore we
can only be explicit with regard to the understorey vegetation. Turner et
al. (1993) described the summit of Tinggi, which is an open grassy area,
probably maintained as such by human visitors. The forest on the lower
slopes is tall, reaching to 30 m or more in height and contains typical
primary forest species such as members of the Dipterocarpaceae and
Myristicaceae (see Appendix 1). The palm Orania sylvicola is abundant,
and there is a zone of bamboo below the summit. This was tentatively
identified as Dendrocalamus hirtellus by Turner et al. (1993), an
identification confirmed from further collections by Dr K.M. Wong. Typical
forest understorey herbs, such as gingers, aroids and ferns, are to be found
in abundance.
The lower edges of the forest grade into secondary forest and
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Tg Sebirah
birah
pee Kg Sebir
Besar
Tg Sebirah
Kechil
Tk Sebirah Kechil
Kg Pasir
Panjang
(0 Primary Forest
Secondary Forest and Ladangs
Tk Tapak
Batu Gajah
Tg Segatal P. Ibol
A610 °S,
P. TINGGI
Tg Selata
308
315
Bt Semunda
Kechil
Tg Mali
Kg Tg Balang
Rb P. Nanga Kechil
ae P. Nanga Besar
[ Permanent Cultivation and Habitation
HB Mangrove
PAI
Figure 1. Maps of Pulau Tinggi and its major vegetation types. (P. = Pulau, Tg = Tanjung, Tk
= Telok, Kg = Kampung, Bt = Bukit;
spot heights in metres)
122 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
abandoned ladangs. Common species in this region include Vitex pinnata
and Melastoma malabathricum. Old crop plants may also be found. We
came across the garden pandan, Pandanus amaryllifolius growing along
one stream, and the climber Tinospora crispa, which is grown for its
medicinal uses, in another area. Newly cleared areas, if not planted, soon
give way to pioneering plants such as Trema tomentosa, Chromolaena
odorata and Macaranga heynei.
Cultivated Areas
The kampung houses on Tinggi are set among the typical tumult of
ornamental and useful plants seen in any Malay village. Coconut palms
(Cocos nucifera) dominate the flat areas near the sea, though their
cultivation appears to be largely neglected at present. The coconut groves
are mostly carpetted with cattle-grazed lallang (Jmperata cylindrica) and
clumps of Lantana camara. The kwini (Mangifera odorata) is the only crop
currently exported from Pulau Tinggi. Other commonly grown trees include
rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), clove (Syzygium aromaticum) and nutmeg
(Myristica fragrans). The attractive herb Tacca palmata is quite common in
the plantations.
Sea Shores
Most of Tinggi’s coastline is rocky, usually of large boulders. The north
coast is mostly inaccessible, even by boat. Common trees found just above
the high tide line are Memecylon edule, Allophylus cobbe, Ficus superba
and Pouteria obovata. Cycas rumphii, Glycosmis mauritiana, Premna
serratifolia and Ficus tinctoria ssp. gibbosa are shrubby species also common
on the rocks. Pandanus dubius is abundant on the north coast in such
situations. The rocky promontories most exposed to salt spray from the
sea support Pemphis acidula or Xylocarpus rumphii. Ferns are often
encountered creeping over the surface of the rocks. These include Davallia
solida, Drynaria quercifolia, Phymatosorus scolopendria and Pyrrosia
lanceolata. Cracks support other herbs, notably the naturalized alien
Kalanchoe pinnata, Dianella ensifolia and Asplenium macrophyllum. Hoya
verticillata and Dischidia major are common epiphytes. The orchids
Dendrobium crumenatum and Aerides odorata can be found growing both
epiphytically and on rocks.
On the sandy beaches, mostly found in the bays on the south and
east coasts, the creepers Ipomoea pes-caprae, Ipomoea littoralis, Vitex trifolia
and Cyperus stoloniferus can be found. The back of the beach is typically
~~ Tee Se re
ee ne eee a eee eee
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi 123
lined with shrubs of Scaevola taccada, Pandanus odoratissimus and
Dendrolobium umbellatum behind which grow trees such as Hibiscus
tiliaceus, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Terminalia catappa, Barringtonia
asiatica and Guettarda speciosa. Less frequently encountered are Thespesia
populnea, Cordia subcordata and Casuarina equisetifolia. Individual trees
of Erythrina fusca, Erythrina variegata and Hernandia nymphaeifolia are
to be found at Telok Seruang.
Mangrove
There are two areas of mangrove vegetation on Pulau Tinggi. At Telok
Terih there is a range of mangrove habitats at the mouth of the Sungai
Terih Besar. Telok Pinang contains a smaller area of mangrove.
A preliminary survey at Telok Terih found that an almost pure stand
of Rhizophora apiculata occupies the seaward front of the mangrove where
the substrate is muddiest (Fig. 2). Patches of different species, including
Telok Terih
Ac = Aegiceras corniculatum
Ar = Avicennia rumphiana
Be = Bruguiera cylindrica
Bs = Bruguiera sexangula
Cd = Ceriops decandra
Ct = Ceriops tagal
Ds = Dolichandrone spathacea
Ra = Rhizophora apiculata
Rm = Rhizophora mucronata
Sa = Sonneratia alba
Sh = Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
Tanjong Terih
Figure 2. Map of the mangrove vegetation found at Telok Terih, Pulau Tinggi.
SEMA
124 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Avicennia rumphiana, Bruguiera cylindrica and Aegiceras corniculatum are
found behind. The back mangrove is quite diverse with big trees of
Xylocarpus granatum and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Dolichandrone spathacea,
Cynometra ramiflora and Bruguiera sexangula also occur here, with an
understorey of Acrostichum aureum and Acrostichum speciosum. The trees
on the rocky fringe bordering the mangrove support many epiphytes
including the rubiaceous myrmecophyte Hydnophytum formicarum and
the clubmoss Huperzia carinata.
The Telok Pinang mangrove is dominated by Rhizophora apiculata
and Rhizophora stylosa but with an admixture of a number of other species
including Ceriops decandra and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. There appears to
be more human utilization of the mangroves in Telok Pinang than Telok
Terih, but there is evidence that the local people may be replanting areas
cut, presumably for fuel or for use as poles. Species found at Telok Terih
but not seen at Telok Pinang include Avicennia alba, Bruguiera sexangula
and Ceriops tagal. The mangroves on Tinggi are notable for the scarcity of
Sonneratia alba and Avicennia alba.
Sea Grasses
We have located herbarium specimens of three species of sea grass collected
from the coastal waters of Pulau Tinggi. There are fairly extensive areas of
sea grass in front of Kampung Tanjung Balang, mostly of Cymodocea
rotundifolia interspersed with the smaller Halodule uninervis. Burkill also
collected Thallassia hemprichii. Enhalus acoroides shoots were found among
the seashore flotsam, but no plants were seen growing around the island.
Japar (1994) also reports Halophila ovalis from Tinggi.
Botanical Significance
We now have records for more than 500 species of vascular plant from
Pulau Tinggi. However, we believe that this is likely to represent less than
half of the flora of the island. Many forest species remain uncollected.
As outlined by Turner ef al. (1993), the most important collections
from Pulau Tinggi are those of Pandanus lais and Canarium hirsutum. The
former has not been collected since 1915, but we have located the latter.
Several plants were encountered near the path running behind the
mangroves in Telok Terih. It grows at the edge of secondary forest and
becomes reproductive at a fairly small size (4-5 m tall).
The most exciting of the recent collections is the discovery of a new
east coast locality for Argusia argentea. Until now it was only known from
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi 25
Pulau Tengah in Johore. This adds to the number of rare seashore species
that have been recorded from Pulau Tinggi. Others in this category include
Serianthes grandiflora, Manilkara kauki and Pouteria linggensis.
Didymocarpus tiumanicus was believed to be endemic to Pulau
Tioman (Henderson 1930, as Paraboea tiumanica), but we have now found
it on Tinggi, and it has been collected on Pulau Pemanggil also. Thus this
species has to be added to the flora of Johore, and must be thought of as a
Tioman Archipelago endemic, rather than being confined to the one island.
Another species not previously reported from Johore is Mallotus
philippensis.
One sterile collection was identified by Mr K.M. Kochummen as
possibly Swintonia acuta, a species only previously recorded from Borneo.
Fertile material is needed to confirm the occurrence of this species in
Peninsular Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
The members of 1996-97 NUS Botany Honours Class are thanked for their
invaluable assistance in collecting and making observations on Pulau Tinggi.
That trip was arranged by the Malaysian Nature Society and Abdullah
Piee, Nik Mohamad and Dr Loh Chi Leong are thanked for their company
on Tinggi. A number of people assisted with identification of collections,
particularly Haji Sidek Kiah and Ali [brahim at the Singapore Botanic
Gardens and Chua Keng Soon at NUS. Mr K.M. Kochummen and Dr Saw
Leng Guan are thanked for their assistance with the Anacardiaceae, and
Dr Wong Khoon Meng for confirming the identity of the Tinggi bamboo.
References
Henderson, M.R. 1930. Notes on the flora of Pulau Tioman and
neighbouring islands. Gardens’ Bulletin Straits Settlements. 5: 80-93.
Japar, S.B. 1994. Status of seagrass resources in Malaysia. In: C.R.
Wilkinson, S. Sudara & L.M. Chou. Proceedings, Third ASEAN-Australia
Symposium on Living Coastal Resources, pp. 283-289 Vol. 1 Australian
Institute of Marine Science, Townsville.
Turner, I.M. 1995. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’
Bulletin Singapore 47: 1-757.
Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, K.S. Chua, P.T. Chew, & Haji Samsuri bin Haji
Ahmad 1993. A botanical reconnaisance of Pulau Tinggi, Johore. Malayan
Nature Journal 46: 157-168.
126
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Appendix 1. A list of species collected from Pulau Tinggi.
One representative herbarium collection is cited for each species. Species only found
in cultivation, or as relics of cultivation, are indicated as such by ‘c’ in the margin.
Nomenclature follows Turner (1995) where possible.
PTERIDOPHYTA
Adiantaceae
Adiantum stenochlamys Baker - Strugnell
KEP 70933 (KEP)
Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw. - PT96
649 (SINU)
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium macrophyllum Sw. - PT96-186
(SINU)
Asplenium nidus L. - PT96-217 (SINU)
Asplenium tenerum G. Forst. - PT96-131
(SINU)
Blechnaceae
Blechnum finlaysonianum Wall. ex Hook.
& Grey. - J.W.H. Yong PTS (SINU)
Davalliaceae
Davallia angustata Wall. ex Hook. &
Grev. - I.M. Turner PT13 (SINU)
Davallia denticulata (Burm.f.) Mett. ex
Kuhn - PT96-423 (SINU)
Dennstaedtiaceae
Lindsaea doryophora K.U. Kramer
I.M.Turner PT4 (SINU)
Lindsaea lucida Blume - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 947 (SING)
Pteridium esculentum (G. Forst.)
Cockayne - I.M. Turner PT66 (SINU)
Tapeinidium pinnatum (Cav.) C.Chr. -
I.M. Turner PT31 (SINU)
Tectaria griffithii (Baker) C. Chr. -
I.M.Turner PT78 (SINU)
Tectaria semipinnata (Roxb.) C.V.
Morton - Radhika Ramadas PT99
(SINU)
Tectaria singaporeana (Hook. & Grev.)
Copel. - PT96-113 (SINU)
Dryopteridaceae
Crenitis vilis (Kunze) Ching - I.M.Turner
PT33 (SINU)
Heterogonium giganteum (Blume)
Holttum - I.M.Turner PT78 (SINU)
Pleocnema irregularis (C. Presl) Holttum
- 1.H. Burkill S.EN. 923 (SING)
Gleicheniaceae
Dicranopteris linearis (Willd.) Spreng. -
PT96-230 (SINU)
Stichurus truncatus (Willd.) Nakai -
I.M.Turner PTS3 (SINU)
Hymenophyllaceae
Cephalomanes javanicum (Blume) Bosch
- 1H. Burkill S.F.N. 937 (SING)
Hymenophyllum polyanthos Sw. -
I.M.Turner PT14 (SINU)
Lomariopsidaceae
Teratophyllum rotundifoliatum (R.
Bonap.) Holttum - I.M.Turner PT76
(SINU)
Lycopodiaceae
Huperzia carinata (Desv. ex Poir.) Trevis.
- PT96-208 (SINU)
Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. - PT96
202 (SINU)
Marattiaceae
Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.) Hoffm. -
PT96-107 (SINU)
Oleandraceae
Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen -
I.M.Turner PT9 (SINU)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Polypodiaceae
Colysis pedunculata (Hook. & Grev.)
Ching - I.M.Turner PT55 (SINU)
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. - PT96
238 (SINU)
Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T. Moore -
PT 96-388 (SINU)
Lecanopteris crustacea Copel.
J.W.H.Yong PT104 (SINU)
Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm.f.)
Pic.Serm. - PT96-332 (SINU)
Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farwell - PT96
451 (SINU)
Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price -
PT96-457 (SINU)
Selliguea heterocarpa (Blume) Blume -
I.M.Turner PT26 (SINU)
Pteridaceae
Acrostichum aureum L. - PT96-644
(SINU)
Acrostichum speciosum Willd. - PT96-312
(SINU)
Pteris ensiformis Burm.f. - PT96-654
(SINU)
Schizaeaceae
Lygodium circinnatum (Burm.f.) Sw. -
PT96-378 (SINU)
Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. - PT96-
364 (SINU)
Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw. - PT96-671
(SINU)
Selaginellaceae
Selaginella intermedia (Blume) Spring -
PT96-285 (SINU)
Selaginella padangensis Hieron. - I.H.
Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)
Selaginella willdenowii (Desv.) Baker -
PT96-106 (SINU)
Thelypteridaceae
Amphineuron opulentum (Kaulf.)
Holttum - PT96-637 (SINU)
127
Christella parasitica (L.) Lév. - J. Sinclair,
S.F.N. 40291 (SING)
Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H. It6 -
PT96-491 (SINU)
Pronephrium menisciicarpon (Blume)
Holttum - I.M.Turner PT43 (SINU)
Pronephrium repandum (Fée) Holttum -
PT96-683 (SINU)
Vittariaceae
Antrophyum callifolium Blume - PT96-
124 (SINU)
SPERMATOPHYTA
Acanthaceae
Asystasia nemorum Nees - PT96-53
(SINU)
c Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. - PT96-15
(SINU)
c Thunbergia affinis S. Moore - PT96-4
(SINU)
Actinidiaceae
Saurauia pentapetala (Jack) Hoogland -
D.J.Metcalfe PT71 (SINU)
Alangiaceae
Alangium kurzii Craib - A. Zainudin AZ
5785 (UKMB)
Alangium rotundifolium (Hassk.)
Bloemb.- I.H. Burkill S.EN. 907 (SING)
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus lividus L. - PT96-657 (SINU)
Amaranthus spinosus L. - PT96-679
(SINU)
Amaryllidaceae
Crinum asiaticum L. - PT96-231 (SINU)
Anacardiaceae
Campnosperma auriculatum (Blume)
Hook.f. - Mohd. Yasin bin Aboo, KEP
70930 (KEP)
128
c Mangifera indica L. - PT96-609 (SINU)
Mangifera magnifica Kochummen - A.
Zainudin AZ 5922 (UKMB)
Mangifera pentandra Hook.f. - I.H.
Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)
Melanochyla caesia (Blume) Ding Hou -
PT96-160 (SINU)
Parishia maingayi Hook.f. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5921 (UKMB)
c Spondias cytherea Sonn. - PT96-153
(SINU)
Swintonia cf. acuta Engl.- A. Zainudin AZ
5841 (UKMB)
Anisophylleaceae
Anisophyllea cornerit Ding Hou - PT96-
525 (SINU)
Annonaceae
c Annona squamata L. - PT96-63 (SINU)
Desmos dasymaschalus (Blume) Safford
- A. Zainudin AZ 5896 (UKMB)
Phaeanthus ophthalmicus (Roxb. ex G.
Don) J. Sinclair - PT96-664 (SINU) —
Polyalthia cauliflora Hook.f. & Thomson
- Samsuri 61 (SINU)
Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston - Samsuri
62 (SINU)
Uvaria hirsuta Jack - 1.H. Burkill S.E.N. 872
(SING)
Apocynaceae
Alstonia angustiloba Miq. - 1.M.Turner
PT42 (SINU)
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5859 (UKMB)
Cerbera manghas L. - PT96-172 (SINU)
Ichnocarpus serpyllifolius (Blume) P.I.
Forst. - J.W.H. Yong PT25 (SINU)
c Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. -
PT96-303 (SINU)
Araceae
Aglaonema simplex Blume - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 912 (SING)
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Alocasia beccarti Engl. - 1.M.Turner PT11
(SINU)
Alocasia denudata Endl. - PT96-101
(SINU)
Alocasia longiloba Mig. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5787 (UKMB)
Anadendrum montanum (Blume) Schott
- A. Zainudin AZ 3259 (UKMB)
c Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. - PT96-
167 (SINU)
Homalomena angustifolia (Jack) Hook.f.
- .H. Burkill S.F.N. 908 (SING)
Homalomena propinqua Schott - PT96-
158 (SINU)
Homalomena sagittifolia Jungh. ex Schott
- .H. Burkill S.F.N. 931 (SING)
Rhaphidophora korthalsii Schott - J.
Feilding s.n., 1892 (SING)
Schismatoglottis calyptrata (Roxb.) Zoll.
& Moritzi - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 883
(SING)
Schismatoglottis wallichii Hook.f. - 1-H.
Burkill S.F.N. 932 (SING)
Scindapsus pictus Hassk. - J.C.W.Chee
PT94 (SINU)
Araliaceae
Arthrophyllum diversifolium Blume -
PT96-402 (SINU)
Arthrophyllum maingayi Philipson - A.
~ Zainudin AZ 5961 (UKMB)
Macropanax maingayi (C.B. Clarke)
Philipson - A. Zainudin AZ 3251
(UKMB)
Schefflera elliptica (Blume) Harms - I.H.
Burkill S.EN. 886 (SING)
Aralidiaceae
Aralidium pinnatifidum (Jungh. & de
Vriese) Mig. - PT96-620 (SINU)
Asclepiadaceae
Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr. - PT96-237
(SINU)
Hoya diversifolia Blume - J. Feilding s.n.,
27 Nov. 1892 (SING)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Hoya elliptica Hook.f. - A. Zainudin AZ
5878 (UKMB)
Hoya multiflora Blume - I.M.Turner 91-
31 (SINU)
Hoya verticillata (Vahl) G. Don - I.H.
Burkill S.EN. 898 (SING)
Avicenniaceae
Avicennia alba Blume - PT96-613
(SINU)
Avicennia rumphiana Hallier f.- PT96-175
(SINU)
Balsaminaceae
c Impatiens balsamina L. - PT96-55 (SINU)
Begoniaceae
Begonia herveyana King - J. Feilding s.n.,
Oct. 1892 (SING)
Bignoniaceae
Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f.) K.Schum.
- PT96-651 (SINU)
Bombacaceae
c Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. - PT96-16
(SINU)
ec Durio zibethinus L. - PT96-33 (SINU)
Boraginaceae
Argusia argentea (L.f.) Heine - PT96-257
(SINU)
Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. - A.
Zainudin AZ 3201 (UKMB)
Cordia subcordata Lam. - PT96-276
(SINU)
Burmanniaceae
Burmannia championii Thwaites - PT96-
511 (SINU)
Burseraceae
Canarium hirsutum Willd. - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 906 (SING)
9
Canarium littorale Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5864 (SING)
Canarium pilosum Benn. - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 862 (SING)
Santiria apiculata Benn. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5919 (UKMB)
Santiria rubiginosa Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5836 (UKMB)
Capparaceae
Cleome rutidosperma DC. - PT96-14
(SINU)
Casuarinaceae
Casuarina equisetifolia J.R. Forst. & G.
Forst. - PT96-176 (SINU)
Celastraceae
Bhesa paniculata Arn. - J.W.H.Yong
PT10 (SINU)
Loesneriella pauciflora (DC.) A.C. Sm. -
PT96-277 (SINU)
Salacia korthalsiana Mig. - 1.M.Turner
PT115 (SINU)
Salacia macrophylla Blume - 1.M.Turner
PT83 (SINU)
Chloranthaceae
Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc.
- PT96-515 (SINU)
Chrysobalanaceae
Maranthes corymbosa Blume - A.
Zainudin AZ 5931 (UKMB)
Colchicaceae
c Gloriosa superba L. - PT96-49 (SINU)
Combretaceae
Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt - PT96-
298 (SINU)
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. - PT96-272
(SINU)
Terminalia catappa L. - PT96-680 (SINU)
130
Commelinaceae
Amischotolype gracilis (Ridl.) I.M.
Turner - PT96-281 (SINU)
Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan - J.
Feilding s.n., 1892 (SING)
Compositae
Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K.
Jansen - Y.F. Chan & M.C. Loh PT48
(SINU)
Ageratum conyzoides L. - PT96-74
(SINU)
Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. - J. Sinclair,
S.F.N. 40282 (SING)
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King &
H. Rob. - PT96-653 (SINU)
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist - IH.
Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)
c Cosmos sulphureus Cav. - PT96-52
(SINU)
Erechtites valerianifolia (Wolf) DC. -
PT 96-221 (SINU)
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5939 (UKMB)
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. - PT96-650
(SINU)
Vernonia patula (Dryand.) Merr. - PT96-
259 (SINU)
Wollastonia biflora (L.) DC. - PT96-386
(SINU)
c Zinnia elegans Jacq. - PT96-142 (SINU)
Connaraceae
Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr.- A. Zainudin
AZ 5881 (UKMB)
Convallariaceae
Peliosanthes teta Andr. ssp. humilis
(Andr.) Jessop - D.J.Metcalfe PT60
(SINU)
Convolvulaceae
c Ipomoea batatus (L.) Lam. - PT96-94
(SINU)
Ipomoea littoralis Blume - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 889 (SING)
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Ipomoea pes-caprea (L.) R.Br. - PT96-
199 (SINU)
Merremia peltata (L.) Merr. - J. Sinclair,
S.E.N. 40281 (SING)
Costaceae
Costus globosus Blume - PT96-159
(SINU)
Crassulaceae
ce Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) DC. - I.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 926 (SING)
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. - PT96-
339 (SINU)
Cycadaceae
Cycas rumphii Mig. - PT96-320 (SINU)
Cymodoceaceae
Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenb. & Hempr.
- PT96-235 (SINU)
Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Asch. - I.H.
Burkill S.EN. 899 (SING)
Cyperaceae
Cyperus dubius Rottb. - PT96-247
(SINU)
Cyperus javanicus Houtt. - PT96-442
(SINU)
Cyperus rotundatus L. - A. Zainudin AZ
5769 (UKMB)
Cyperus stoloniferus Retz. - PT96-248
(SINU)
Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5768 (UKMB)
Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl - PT96-
318 (SINU)
Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng. -
PT96-411 (SINU)
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. - 1.H. Burkill
s.n., June 1915 (SING)
Kyllinga polycephala Willd. ex Kunth -
PT96-100 (SINU)
Mapania cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien var.
petiolata (C.B. Clarke) Uittien - PT96-
416 (SINU)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Scleria biflora Roxb. - PT96-462 (SINU)
Scleria levis Retz. - PT96-459 (SINU)
Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. - PT96-224
(SINU)
Scleria purpurascens Steud. - PT96-279
(SINU)
Dilleniaceae
Tetracera indica (Christ. & Panz.) Merr.
- PT96-346 (SINU)
Tetracera scandens (L.) Merr. - PT96-325
(SINU)
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (Blanco)
Blanco - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 930
(SING)
Shorea macroptera Dyer - Mohd. Yasin
bin Aboo, KEP 70928 (KEP)
Shorea materialis Ridl. - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 946 (SING)
Shorea pauciflora King - Mohd. Yasin bin
Aboo, KEP 70941 (KEP)
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea bulbifera L. - A. Zainudin AZ
5894 (UKMB)
Dracaenaceae
Dracaena maingayi Hook.f. - PT96-342
(SINU)
Dracaena umbratica Ridl. - A. Zainudin
AZ 3219 (UKMB)
Ebenaceae
Diospyros cauliflora Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5916 (UKMB)
Diospyros ferrea (Willd.) Bakh. - PT96-
189 (SINU)
Diospyros lanceifolia Roxb. - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 874 (SING)
Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kostel. -
PT96-447 (SINU)
Diospyros toposia Buch.-Ham. - I.H.
Burkill S.EN. 943 (SING)
131
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpus petiolatus (Jack) Wall. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5858 (UKMB)
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum cuneatum (Mig.) Kurz -
PT96-315 (SINU)
Euphorbiaceae
c Acalypha hispida Burm.f.- PT96-12
(SINU)
Antidesma coriaceum Tul. - A. Zainudin
AZ 3222 (UKMB)
Antidesma cuspidatum Mill.Arg. - PT96-
476 (SINU)
Antidesma montanum Blume - F.S.P. Ng,
FRI 5031 (KEP)
Antidesma velutinosum Blume - A.
Zainudin AZ 5831 (UKMB)
c Baccaurea motleyana (Mill.Arg.)
Miuill.Arg. - PT96-458 (SINU)
Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw.) Miill.Arg.
- PT96-145 (SINU)
Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. - PT96-162
(SINU)
Breynia reclinata (Roxb.) Hook.f. - PT96-
412 (SINU)
Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C.
Fisch. - D.J.Metcalfe PT49 (SINU)
Bridelia tomentosa Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5814 (UKMB)
Claoxylon longifolium (Blume) Endl. ex
Hassk. - A. Zainudin AZ 3260
(UKMB)
Croton argyratus Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5862 (UKMB)
Endospermum diadenum (Miq.) Airy
Shaw - D.J.Metcalfe PT2 (SINU)
Euphorbia cyathophora Murr. - PT96-234
(SINU)
Euphorbia hirta L. - PT96-50 (SINU)
c Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. - A.
Zainudin AZ 3237 (UKMB)
Excoecaria agallocha L. - PT96-218
(SINU)
132
Glochidion fuscum (Mill.Arg.) Boerl. -
A. Zainudin AZ 3210 (UKMB)
Glochidion penangense (Miill.Arg.) Airy
Shaw - PT96-393 (SINU)
c Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.)
Mill.Arg. - PT96-485 (SINU)
c Jatropha gossypiifolia L. - PT96-677
(SINU)
Macaranga heynei 1.M. Johnst. - PT96-
166 (SINU)
Macaranga gigantea (Rchb.f. & Zoll.)
Miil.Arg. - PT96-686 (SINU)
Macaranga tanarius (L.) Mill.Arg. -
PT96-663 (SINU)
Macaranga triloba (Blume) Miill.Arg. -
I.M.Turner PT23 (SINU)
Mallotus penangensis Mill.Arg. - PT96-
147 (SINU)
_Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Miill.Arg. -
PT96-681 (SINU)
Mallotus oblongifolius (Mig.) Miull.Arg.
- PT96-466 (SINU)
Mallotus subcuneatus (Gage) Airy Shaw
- I.M.Turner PT105 (SINU)
Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex
Blume) Rchb.f. & Zoll. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5813 (UKMB)
Micrococca mercurialis (L.) Benth. -
PT96-30 (SINU)
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn.
- PT96-151 (SINU)
Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. -
PT96-655 (SINU)
Phyllanthus urinaria L. - PT96-640
(SINU)
c Ricinus communis L. - PT96-367 (SINU)
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. - PT96-
84 (SINU)
Suregada multiflora (Juss.) Baill. - PT96-
347 (SINU)
Trigonostemon longifolius Baill. - PT96-
109 (SINU)
°
Fagaceae
Castanopsis megacarpa Gamble - F.S.P.
Ng, FRI 5087 (KEP)
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Castanopsis inermis (Lindl. ex Wall.)
Benth. & Hook.f. - Mohd. Yasin bin
Aboo, KEP 70926 (KEP)
Lithocarpus bancanus (Scheff.) Rehder -
A. Zainudin AZ 5923 (UKMB)
Flacourtiaceae
Casearia grewiifolia Vent. - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 871 (SING)
c Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. -
I.H. Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)
Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Moritzi - A.
Zainudin AZ 5782 (UKMB)
Hemiscolopia trimera (Boerl.) Slooten -
PT96-443 (SINU)
Flagellariaceae
Flagellaria indica L. - PT96-271 (SINU)
Gesneriaceae
Didymocarpus antirrhinoides A. Weber
- Strugnell KEP 70932 (KEP)
Didymocarpus tiumanicus (Ridl.) B.L.
Burtt - PT96-619 (SINU)
Gnetaceae |
c Gnetum gnemon L. - I.H. Burkill S.F.N.
964 (SING)
Gnetum macrostachyum Hook.f. - PT96-
393 (SINU)
Goodeniaceae
Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. - PT96-
44 (SINU)
Gramineae
Acroceras tonkinense (Balansa) C.E.
Hubb. ex Bor - I.M.Turner PT72
(SINU)
c Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl.
‘yittata’ - A. Zainudin AZ 5797
(UKMB)
c Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex Wendl. var.
vulgaris - A. Zainudin AZ 5969
(UKMB)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) $.T. Blake -
PT96-675 (SINU)
Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. - PT96-
490 (SINU)
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. -
PT96-149 (SINU)
Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf -
I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 913 (SING)
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. -
PT96-263 (SINU)
Dendrocalamus hirtellus Ridl. - 1.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 909 (SING)
Digitaria setigera Roem. & Schult. -
PT96-602 (SINU)
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. - PT96-143
(SINU)
Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn. ex
Hook. & Arn. - PT96-152 (SINU)
Eragrostis cumingii Steud. - I.M.Turner
PT74 (SINU)
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. - PT96-
150 (SINU)
Ischaemum muticum L. - PT96-144
(SINU)
Miscanthus floridulus (Labill.) Warb. ex
K. Schum. - I.M.Turner & D.J.Metcalfe
PT89 (SINU)
Mnesithea glandulosa (Trin.) de Koning
& Sosef - PT96-674 (SINU)
Oplismenus compositus (L.) P.Beauv. -
PT96-467 (SINU)
Panicum sarmentosum Roxb. - PT96-473
(SINU)
Paspalum conjugatum Berg. - I.M.Turner
PT113 (SINU)
Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult. - A.
Zainudin AZ 3246 (UKMB)
Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb. ex
Murr.) Kunth - PT96-118 (SINU)
Schizostachyum jaculans Holttum - A.
Zainudin AZ5817 (UKMB)
Setaria geniculata (Lam.) P. Beauv. -
PT96-223 (SINU)
Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. var.
flaccidus (Roem. & Schult.) Veldkamp
- LH. Burkill S.F.N. 925 (SING)
b32
Thuarea involuta (G. Forst.) R.Br. ex
Roem. & Schult. - PT96-212 (SINU)
Urochloa paspaloides Pres - A. Zainudin
AZ 5952 (UKMB)
Zoysia matrella (L.) Merr. - PT96-90
(SINU)
Guttiferae
Calophyllum depressinervosum M.R.
Hend. & Wyatt-Sm. - A. ZainudinAZ
5845 (UKMB)
Calophyllum ferrugineum Ridl. - PT96-
289 (SINU)
Calophyllum flavoramulum M.R. Hend.
& Wyatt-Sm. - A. Zainudin AZ 5843
(UKMB)
Calophyllum inophyllum L. - PT96-167
(SINU)
Calophyllum pulcherrimum Wall. ex
Choisy - KEP 70936 (KEP)
Cratoxylon cochinchinense (Lout.)
Blume - A Zainudin AZ 5830
(UKMB)
Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex T. Anderson
- A. Zainudin AZ 5854 (UKMB)
Garcinia eugeniifolia Wall. ex T.
Anderson - A. Zainudin AZ 5803
(UKMB)
Garcinia griffithii T. Anderson - Samsuri
63 (SINU)
Garcinia hombroniana Pierre - PT96-232
(SINU)
Garcinia nervosa Miq. - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 887 (SING)
Garcinia nigrolineata Planch. ex T.
Anderson - A. Zainudin AZ 5897
(UKMB)
Mesua aff. assamica (King & Prain)
Kosterm. - F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5088 (KEP)
Heliconiaceae
c Heliconia psittacorum L.f. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5793 (UKMB)
Hernandiaceae
Hernandia nymphaeifolia (Presl) Kubitski
134
- J, Feilding 4007, 1892 (SING)
Hydrocharitaceae
Thallassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Asch. -
I.H. Burkill S.EN. 900 (SING)
Hypoxidaceae
Molineria latifolia (Dryand.) Herb. -
PT96-134 (SINU)
Icacinaceae
Phytocrene bracteata Wall. - 1.H. Burkill
S.EN. 902 (SING)
Ixonanthaceae
Ixonanthes icosandra Jack - A. Zainudin
AZ 5868 (UKMB)
Ixonanthes reticulata Jack - A. Zainudin
AZ 3252 (UKMB)
Labiatae
c Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. - PT96-18
(SINU) 7
Leucas zeylanica (L.) R.Br. - PT96-27
(SINU)
Ocimum basilicum L. - PT96-13 (SINU)
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. - PT96-37 (SINU)
Lauraceae
Actinodaphne ?montana Gamble - J.
Sinclair, $.F.N. 40290 (SING)
Beilschmiedia kunstleri Gamble - A.
Zainudin AZ 5915 (UKMB)
Cassytha filiformis L. - PT96-47 (SINU)
Cinnamomum cf. altissimum Kostermans
- |.M.Turner PT64 (SINU)
Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr. - PT96-
527 (SINU)
Lecythidaceae
Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz - PT96-
183 (SINU)
Barringtonia macrostachya (Jack) Kurz -
I.H. Burkill S.EN. 929 (SING)
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Leeaceae
Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merr. - I.H. Burkill
S.E.N. 920 (SING)
Leguminosae
Abrus precatorius L. - PT96-177 (SINU)
Adenanthera malayana Kosterm. - F.S.P.
Ng, FRI 5072 (KEP)
Adenanthera pavonina L. - PT96-349
(SINU)
Archidendron ellipticum (Blume) I.C.
Nielsen - A. Zainudin AZ 5788
(UKMB)
Bauhinia _ integrifolia Roxb. ssp.
integrifolia - 1.H. Burkill S.F.N. 951
(SING)
Callerya atropurpurea (Wall.) Schot - A.
Zainudin AZ 5842 (UKMB)
Canavalia cathartica Thouars - PT96-322
(SINU)
Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5825 (UKMB)
Crotalaria pallida Aiton - PT96-79
(SINU)
Crotalaria retusa L. - A. Zainudin AZ
5895 (UKMB)
Cynometra ramiflora L. - PT96-652
(SINU)
Dalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain
- J. Feilding s.n., Nov. 1892 (SING)
~Dendrolobium umbellatum (L.) Benth. -
PT96-336 (SINU)
Derris trifoliata Lour. - PT96-387 (SINU)
Erythrina fusca Lour. - PT96-292 (SINU)
Erythrina variegata L. - PT96-209 (SINU)
Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze - 1.H.
Burkill., $.F.N. 891 (SING)
Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex
Benth. - Mohd. Yasin bin Aboo, KEP
70927 (KEP)
Lucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit -
PT96-10 (SINU)
Mimosa pudica L. - PT96-397 (SINU)
Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) K.
Heyne - PT96-220 (SINU)
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre - PT96-319
(SINU)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
c Saraca indica L. - A. Zainudin AZ 5806
(UKMB)
Serianthes grandiflora Benth. - PT96-273
(SINU)
Senna alata (L.) Roxb. - A. Zainudin AZ
5815 (UKMB)
c Senna fruticosa (Mill.) Irwin & Barneby
- PT96-3 (SINU)
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. - PT96-60 (SINU)
Sindora echinocalyx (Benth.) Prain - I.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 896 (SING)
Sophora tomentosa L. - PT96-327 (SINU)
¢ Tamarindus indica L. - PT96-362 (SINU)
Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker -
PT96-488 (SINU)
Vigna marina (Burm.) Merr. - I.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 892 (SING)
c Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek - PT96-
647 (SINU)
Loranthaceae
Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq. - PT96-
633 (SINU)
Lythraceae
c Lawsonia inermis L. - PT96-43 (SINU)
_ Pemphis acidula J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. -
PT96-169 (SINU)
Sonneratia alba J.J.Sm.- PT96-210 (SINU)
Malvaceae
c¢ Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. - PT96-
670 (SINU)
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet - A.
Zainudin AZ 3239 (UKMB)
c Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. - PT96-38
(SINU)
Hibiscus tiliaceus L. - 1.H. Burkill S.F.N.
893 (SINU)
c¢ Malvaviscus penduliflorus DC. - PT96-
82 (SINU)
Sida rhombifolia L. - PT96-80 (SINU)
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corréa -
PT96-196 (SINU)
Urena lobata L. - PT96-621 (SINU)
135
Marantaceae
Donax grandis (Mig.) K. Schum. - PT96-
122 (SINU)
c¢ Maranta arundinacea L. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5808 (UKMB)
Melastomataceae
Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don - PT96-69
(SINU)
Melastoma malabathricum L. - PT96-323
(SINU)
Memecylon campanulatum C.B. Clarke -
A. Zainudin AZ 3226 (UKMB)
Memecylon edule Roxb. - PT96-601
(SINU)
Memecylon lilacinum Zoll. & Moritzi -
I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 903 (SING)
Pachycentria constricta (Blume) Blume -
PT96-500 (SINU)
Pternandra echinata Jack - 1.H. Burkill s.n.,
June 1915 (SINU)
Meliaceae
c Lansium domesticum Corréa - PT96-2
(SINU)
c Melia azederach L. - PT96-667 (SINU)
Xylocarpus granatum J. Konig - PT96-
304 (SINU)
Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb. -
PT96-239 (SINU)
Menispermaceae
Cocculus orbiculatus (L.) DC. - PT96-
245 (SINU)
Fibraurea tinctoria Lour. - PT96-414
(SINU)
Hypserpa nitida Miers - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 880 (SING)
Pericampylus glaucus (Lam.) Merr. -
PT96-494 (SINU)
Stephania capitata (Blume) Spreng. -
PT 96-280 (SINU)
c Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. &
Thomson - PT96-420 (SINU)
Moraceae
Artocarpus dadah Mig. - A. Zainudin AZ
5925 (UKMB)
Artocarpus hispidus F.M. Jarrett - A.
Zainudin AZ 5846 (UKMB)
Artocarpus lanceifolius Roxb. - J. Sinclair
s.n., May 1954 (SING)
Artocarpus rigidus Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5863 (UKMB)
Ficus consociata Blume var. murtoni
King - I.M.Turner PTS2 (SINU)
Ficus drupacea Thunb. - PT96-422
(SINU)
Ficus globosa Blume - PT96-646 (SINU)
Ficus grossularioides Burm,f.
I.M.Turner PT81 (SINU)
Ficus hispida L.f. - PT96-330 (SINU)
Ficus microcarpa L.f. - PT96-355 (SINU)
Ficus scortechinii King - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 954 (SING)
Ficus subcordata Blume - PT96-348
(SINU)
Ficus superba (Mig.) Mig. - PT96-368
(SINU) :
Ficus tinctoria G. Forst. ssp. gibbosa
(Blume) Corner - PT96-292 (SINU)
Ficus vasculosa Wall. ex Mig. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5962 (UKMB)
Parartocarpus ?bracteatus (King) Becc. -
F.S.P. Ng FRI 5076 (KEP)
Streblus ilicifolius (Vidal) Corner - I.H.
Burkill S.EN. 904 (SING)
Musaceae
Musa acuminata Colla ssp. malaccensis
(Ridl.) N.W. Simmonds - PT96-146
(SINU)
Myristicaceae
Gymnacranthera forbesii (King) Warb. -
A. Zainudin AZ 5902 (UKMB)
Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5896 (UKMB)
Horsfieldia polyspherula (Hook.f.) J.
Sinclair - J. Sinclair, S.F.N. 40288
(SING)
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Horsfieldia tomentosa Warb. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5847 (UKMB)
Knema communis J. Sinclair - A.
Zainudin AZ 5926 (UKMB)
Knema hookeriana (Wall. ex Hook.f. &
Thomson) Warb. - A. Zainudin AZ
5807 (UKMB)
Knema malayana Warb. - PT96-244
(SINU)
Knema scortechinii (King) J. Sinclair - J.
Sinclair, S.F.N. 40287 (SING)
c Myristica fragrans Houtt. - PT96-66
(SINU)
Myrsinaceae
Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco -
PT96-181 (SINU)
Ardisia elliptica Thunb. - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 852 (SING)
Ardisia oxyphylla Wall. ex DC. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5857 (UKMB)
Embelia ribes Burm. - A. Zainudin AZ
5908 (UKMB)
Labisia pumila (Blume) Fern.-Vill. -
PT96-467 (SINU)
Maesa ramentacea Wall. ex Roxb. - PT96-
498 (SINU)
Rapanea porteriana Wall. ex A.DC. -
I.M.Turner PT66 (SINU)
Myrtaceae
c Psidium guajava L. - PT96-260 (SINU)
Rhodamnia cinerea Jack - A. Zainudin
AZ 5867 (UKMB)
c Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.
Perry - PT96-489 (SINU)
Syzygium grande (Wight) Walp. - PT96-
250 (SINU)
c Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.
Perry - PT96-622 (SINU)
Syzygium pauper (Ridl.) I.M. Turner -
I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 939 (SING)
Syzygium pendens (Duthie) I.M. Turner
- D.J.Metcalfe & J.W.H.Yong PT90
(SINU)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Syzygium pycnanthum Merr. & L.M.
Perry - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 940 (SINU)
c Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr.
& L.M. Perry - PT96-117 (SINU)
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa L. - PT96-141 (SINU)
c Mirabilis jalapa L. - PT96-28 (SINU)
Ochnaceae
Campylospermum serratum (Gaertn.)
Bittrich & M.C.E. Amaral - J. Feilding
s.n., 27 Oct. 1892 (SING)
Olacaceae
Strombosia javanica Blume - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 952 (SING)
Ximenia americana L. - I.H. Burkill S.EN.
884 (SING)
Oleaceae
Olea brachiata (Lour.) Merr.- A. Zainudin
AZ 3257 (UKMB)
Opiliaceae
Cansjera rheedii J.F. Gmel. - J. Feilding
s.n., 27 Oct. 1892 (SING)
Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr.- A.
Zainudin AZ 5832 (UKMB)
Orchidaceae
Aerides odorata Lour. - PT96-502 (SINU)
Anoectochilus geniculatus Ridl. - PT96-
285 (SINU)
Bulbophyllum vaginatum (Lindl.) Rchb,f.
- PT96-228 (SINU)
Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume
- H.T.W.Tan PT8 (SINU)
Cymbidium atropurpureum (Lindl.)
Rolfe - A. Zainudin AZ 5885 (UKMB)
Cymbidium finlaysonianum Lindl. -
PT96-188 (SINU)
Dendrobium crumenatum Sw. - PT96-333
(SINU)
Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh -
PT96-301 (SINU)
|b A
Oxalidaceae
c Averrhoea bilimbi L. - PT96-57 (SINU)
c Averrhoa carambola L. - PT96-23 (SINU)
Oxalis barrelieri L. - PT96-404 (SINU)
Palmae
Arenga westerhoutii Griff. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5802 (UKMB)
Calamus javensis Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5800 (UKMB)
Caryota mitis Lour. - PT96-335 (SINU)
Daemonorops lewisiana (Griff.) Mart. -
I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 866 (SING)
Daemonorops melanochaetes Blume - A.
Zainudin AZ 5920 (UKMB)
Korthalsia rigida Blume - J.W.H.Yong
PT16 (SINU)
Korthalsia rostrata Blume - A. Zainudin
AZ 5917 (UKMB)
Licuala ferruginea Becc. - PT96-635
(SINU)
Licuala spinosa Wurmb - A. Zainudin
AZ 5872 (UKMB)
Nypa fruticans Wurmb - PT96-274
(SINU)
Orania sylvicola (Griff.) H.E. Moore -
PT96-161 (SINU)
Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume -
I.M.Turner PT63 (SINU)
Pandanaceae
Freycinetia sumatrana Hemsl.
I.M.Turner PT39 (SINU)
c Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. - PT96-
409 (SINU)
Pandanus dubius Spreng. - PT96-268
(SINU)
Pandanus lais Kurz - J.H. Burkill S.F.N.
957 (SING)
Pandanus c.f. longicaudatus Holttum &
H. St.John - J.W.H. Yong PT61 (SINU)
Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. - PT96-201
(SINU)
Passifloraceae
Adenia macrophylla (Blume) Koord. var.
TNT ee
138
macrophylla - 1.M.Turner PT69
(SINU)
Passiflora foetida L. - PT96-11 (SINU)
Passiflora laurifolia L. - PT96-626 (SINU)
Pedaliaceae
Sesamum orientale L. - PT96-187 (SINU)
Phormiaceae
Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. - PT96-408
(SINU)
Piperaceae
Piper caninum Blume - D.J.Metcalfe
PT122 (SINU)
Piper pedicellosum Wall. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5789 (UKMB)
Piper protractum C. DC. - M.C.Lim PT29
(SINU)
c Piper sarmentosum Roxb. - PT96-24
(SINU)
Pittosporaceae
Pittosporum ferrugineum W.T. Aiton -
PT96-48 (SINU)
Podocarpaceae
Podocarpus polystachyus R.Br. ex Endl. -
PT96-193 (SINU)
Polgalaceae
Polygala paniculata L. - PT96-156
(SINU)
Xanthophyllum affine Korth. ex Mig. -
F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5085 (KEP)
Xanthophyllum amoenum Chodat - A.
Zainudin AZ 5914 (UKMB)
Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Blume) Dietr.
- A. Zainudin AZ 5918 (UKMB)
Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea L. - PT96-215 (SINU)
Punicaceae
c Punica granatum L. - PT96-46 (SINU)
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Ranunculaceae
Clematis smilacifolia Wall. - 1.H. Burkill
S.E.N. 857 (SING)
Rhamnaceae
Colubrina asiatica L. ex Brongn. - I.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 894 (SING)
Rhizophoraceae
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume - PT96-
198 (SINU)
Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam. ex
Savigny - I.H. Burkill S$.F.N. 953
(SING)
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. - PT96-
643 (SIND)
Ceriops decandra (Griff.) W. Theob. -
PT96-454 (SINU)
Ceriops tagal (Pers.) C.B. Rob. - PT96-
206 (SINU)
Rhizophora apiculata Blume - PT96-297
(SINU)
Rhizophora mucronata Lam. - PT96-211
(SINU)
Rhizophora stylosa Griff. - PT96-453
(SINU)
Rosaceae
Rubus moluccanus L. var. angulosus
Kalkman - I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 860
(SING)
Rubiaceae
Aidia densiflora (Wall.) Masam. - 1H.
Burkill S.F.N. 870 (SING)
Borreria laevicaulis (Mig.) Ridl. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5934 (UKMB)
Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thwaites -
J.W.H.Yong PT106 (SINU)
c Gardenia augusta (L.) Merr. - PT96-403
(SINU)
Guettarda speciosa L. - 1.H. Burkill S.F.N.
855 (SING)
Hedyotis capitellata Wall. ex G. Don -
PT96-616 (SINU)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Hedyotis herbacea L. - PT96-632 (SINU)
Hydnophytum formicarum Jack - LH.
Burkill $.F.N. 869 (SING)
Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. - F.S.P. Ng,
FRI 5045 (KEP)
Ixora lobbii King & Gamble - J. Feilding
s.n., Oct. 1892 (SING)
Ixora pendula Jack - A. Zainudin AZ
3225 (UKMB)
Lasianthus cyanocarpus Jack - PT96-668
(SINU)
Morinda citrifolia L. - PT96-425 (SINU)
Morinda elliptica (Hook.f.) Ridl. - A.
Zainudin AZ 3217 (UKMB)
Morinda umbellata L. - PT96-432 (SINU)
Ophiorrhiza discolor R.Br. - H.T.W.Tan
PT32 (SINU)
Pavetta naucleiflora R. Br. ex G. Don -
I.H. Burkill S.F.N. 868 (SING)
Psychotria brachybotrys Ridl. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5828 (UKMB)
Psychotria sarmentosa Blume - PT96-493
(SINU)
Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea C.F. Gaertn.
- PT96-192 (SINU)
Spermacoce articularis L.f. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5960 (UKMB)
Timonius compressicaulis (Miq.) Boerl. -
I.H. Burkill $.F.N. 854 (SING)
Uncaria cordata (Lour.) Merr. - LH.
Burkill $.F.N. 950 (SING)
Urophyllum sp. 2 - PT96-126 (SINU)
Urophyllum streptopodium Wall. ex.
Hook. f.- 1-H. Burkill S.F.N.935 (SING)
Rutaceae
c Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle -
PT96-495 (SINU)
c Citrus maxima (L.) Merr. - PT96-83
(SINU)
Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka -
PT96-396 (SINU)
Maclurodendron porteri (Hook.f.) T.G.
Hartley - A. Zainudin AZ 3261
(UKMB)
Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack - PT96-380
(SINU)
139
Paramignya lobata Burkill - PT96-345
(SINU)
Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC. - A.
Zainudin AZ 3242 (UKMB)
Sapindaceae
Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. - LH.
Burkill S.F.N. 895 (SING)
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. - J. Feilding 4062
(SING)
Guioa pleuropteris (Blume) Radlk. -
PT96-604 (SINU)
Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh. - A.
Zainudin AZ 3220 (UKMB)
Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenh. -
F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5092 (KEP)
Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. -
PT96-128 (SINU)
Nephelium juglandifolium Blume - A.
Zainudin AZ 5848 (UKMB)
Pometia pinnata J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. -
Mohd. Yasin bin Aboo, KEP 70929
(KEP)
Sapotaceae
Manilkara kauki (L.) Dubard - I.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 942 (SING)
c¢ Manilkara zapota (L.) Royen - PT96-20
(SINU)
Palaquium rostratum (Mig.) Burck -
F.S.P. Ng FRI 5077 (KEP)
Payena lucida A. DC. - F.S.P. Ng FRI
5082 (KEP)
Pouteria linggensis (Burck) Baehni - [.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 876 (SING)
Pouteria maingayi (C.B. Clarke) Baehni
- F.S.P. Ng, FRI 5079 (KEP)
Pouteria obovata (Burck) Baehni - PT96-
450 (SINU)
Scrophulariaceae
Scoparia dulcis L. - PT96-605 (SINU)
Torenia ciliata Sm. - PT96-673 (SINU)
c Torenia fournieri Linden ex Fourn. - A.
Zainudin AZ 5967 (UKMB)
140
SIMAROUBACEAE
Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. - PT96-81
(SINU)
Smilacaceae
Smilax lanceifolia Roxb. - 1.M.Turner
PT92 (SINU)
Solanaceae
c Capsicum annuum L. - PT96-31 (SINU)
Physalis minima L. - PT96-317 (SINU)
Solanum lasiocarpum Dunal. - PT96-226
(SINU)
c Solanum melongena L. - PT96-5 (SINU)
Solanum torvum Sw. - PT96-509 (SINU)
Sterculiaceae
Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr. -
PT96-618 (SINU)
Helicteres hirsuta Lour. - A. Zainudin AZ
5827 (UKMB)
Heritiera littoralis Dryand. - PT96-174
(SINU) |
Sterculia coccinea Jack - D.J.Metcalfe &
J.W.H.Yong PTS9 (SINU)
Sterculia rubiginosa Vent. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5905 (UKMB)
Stemonaceae
Stichoneuron caudatum Ridl. - A.
Zainudin AZ 3248 (UKMB)
Taccaceae
Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl. - 1.M.Turner
PT91 (SINU)
Tacca palmata Blume - PT96-662 (SINU)
Theaceae
Gordonia concentricicatrix Burkill - A.
Zainudin AZ 5924 (UKMB)
Gordonia multinervis King - A. Zainudin
AZ 5851 (UKMB)
Ternstroemia bancana Miq. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5855 (UKMB)
Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
Thymelaeaceae
Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. - Mohd.
Yasin bin Aboo, KEP 70924 (KEP)
Linostoma pauciflorum Griff. - PT96-648
(SINU)
Tiliaceae
Colona serratifolia Cav. - A. Zainudin
AZ 5816 (UKMB)
Grewia laevigata Vahl - I.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 879 (SING)
Microcos hirsuta (Korth.) Burret - I.H.
Burkill S.F.N. 933 (SING)
Muntingia calabura L. - PT96-22 (SINU)
Turneraceae
Turnera ulmifolia L. - PT96-291 (SINU)
Ulmaceae
Gironniera hirta Ridl. - 1.M.Turner PT65
(SINU)
Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara - PT96-45
(SINU)
Urticaceae
Pipturus argenteus (G. Forst.) Wedd. - I.H.
Burkill s.n., June 1915 (SING)
Verbenaceae
Callicarpa longifolia Lam. - Y.F.Chan &
M.C.Loh PT44 (SINU)
c Clerodendrum calamitosum L. - PT96-25
(SINU)
c Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb.
- PT96-71 (SINU)
Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. -
PT96-214 (SINU)
¢ Clerodendrum paniculatum L. - PT96-34
(SINU)
c Clerodendrum serrulatum (L.) Moon - A.
Zainudin AZ 3235 (UKMB)
Gmelina asiatica L. - PT96-32 (SINU)
Gmelina elliptica Sm. - A. Zainudin AZ
5887 (UKMB)
Lantana camara L. - PT96-36 (SINU)
1. The Plants and Vegetation of Pulau Tinggi
Premna serratifolia L. - PT96-17 (SINU)
Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl - PT96-
261 (SINU)
Vitex negundo L. - PT96-1 (SINU)
Vitex pinnata L. - PT96-350 (SINU)
Vitex trifolia L. - PT96-229 (SINU)
Violaceae
Rinorea bengalensis (Wall.) Kuntze -
J.W.H.Yong PT17 (SINU)
Rinorea horneri (Korth.) Kuntze -
J.W.H.Yong & D.J.Metcalfe PT7
(SINU)
Rinorea sclerocarpa (Burgersd.) M. Jacobs
- PT96-125 (SINU)
Viscaceae
Viscum ovalifolium Wall. ex DC. - PT96-
241 (SINU)
14]
Vitaceae
Ampelocissus elegans (Kurz) Gagnep. -
A. Zainudin AZ 5927 (UKMB)
Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep. -
PT96-269 (SINU)
Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin - F.S.P. Ng,
FRI 5101 (SING)
Cissus hastata Miq. - PT96-363 (SINU)
Cissus repens Lam. - PT96-358 (SINU)
Zingiberaceae
c Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw. - IH. Burkill
S.F.N. 861 (SING)
?Amomum cephalotes Ridl. - 1.H. Burkill
S.F.N. 882 (SING)
Amomum testaceum Ridl. - PT96-417
(SINU)
Amomum xanthophlebium Baker - PT96-
507 (SINU)
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 143-145. 143
Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak edited by E. Soepadmo and K.M. Wong,
jointly published by the Sabah Forestry Department, Forest Research
Institute Malaysia and the Sarawak Forestry Department. Vol 1 (1995) LI
+ 513 pp, Vol 2 (1996) x + 443 pp.
The Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak is an ambitious project, some might
even say ‘mission impossible’. The aim is to produce a flora of the trees,
woody plants of at least 5 m tall and 10 cm dbh, of the two Bornean states
of Malaysia. This, it is estimated, will be enough to fill eight volumes, each
covering some 300-400 species; and, what is more, it is proposed to complete
the whole undertaking in ten years.
Two volumes have been published so far, and they are simply
magnificent. It is always possible to find something to criticise, and I will
indulge in the reviewer’s liberty to nitpick below, but in general the first
two volumes of the flora are excellent in every department. The quality of
production is outstanding, the standard of the taxonomic treatments
excellent, the drawings wonderful.
The first volume starts with three introductory chapters. These are:
an overview of the background to the Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak
Project by Professor E. Soepadmo, a brief history of plant collecting and
floristic accounts of Borneo by Dr Wong Khoon Meng, and an essay on
the biogeography and ecology of northern Borneo by Professor Peter
Ashton. There follow accounts of 31 families (Acer., Alangi., Anisophylle.,
Araucari., Bignoni., Burser., Cappar., Celastr., Chrysoblan., Clethr.,
Connar., Corn., Datisc., Goodeni., Hyperic., Illici., Jugland., Monimi., Nyss.,
Ochn., Olac., Oxalid., Pittospor., Rhamn., Rhizophor., Rut., Simaroub.,
Sonnerati., Staphyle., Styr. & Trigoni.). Volume Two includes 23 families
(Anacardi., Boragin., Caprifoli., Casuarin., Chloranth., Crypteroni.,
Ctenolophon., Daphniphyll., Epacrid., Erythroxyl., Ixonanth., Lee., Logani.,
Lythr., Malv., Myric., Nyctagin., Santal., Sapind., Scyphostegi., Tetramerist.,
Ulm. & Winter.). The accounts are contributed by many authors, including
the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew and many junior staff
members of Malaysian Herbaria. The project workhorse is clearly Mr K.M.
Kochummen who has provided the treatments of most of the larger families
included thus far. The family accounts include a key to all genera occurring
in Sabah and Sarawak, followed by more detailed entries for genera that
include trees, with full keys and species descriptions of arborescent taxa.
This is a proper flora and not merely a manual for foresters, so major
synonyms and typification are given, but the inclusion of one plate for
each genus containing trees, the use of not-overly-technical language and
strict adherence to alphabetical arrangement of taxa will help to make the
flora more accessible to readers who are not taxonomists.
144 Gard. Bull. Sing. 49(1) (1997)
The preparatory work for the flora has led to the discovery of many
new species, 39 in volume two alone. Also Wong and Sugau, in their
treatment of the Loganiaceae employ a much narrower species concept in
Fagraea than Leenhouts (1962) did in his account for Flora Malesiana. In a
precursory paper, Wong and Sugau (1996) have divided Leenhouts’s
Fagraea fragrans, F. ceilanica and F. elliptica and F. racemosa into many
elements. The relative susceptibility of taxonomists to see discontinuity or
intergradation will frequently lead to different treatments of groups
exhibiting complex variation like Fagraea. Users of the Tree Flora of Sabah
and Sarawak will have the opportunity to test whether Wong and Sugau’s
species are justified.
My only major complaint about the flora is the frequent omission of
any discussion about the taxonomy employed. In the introduction it is
stated that Brummit (1993) is the main guide to familial and generic
circumscription, yet the two volumes contain instances where Brummit has
not been followed e.g. the maintenance of the Sonneratiaceae and the
Hypericaceae, the inclusion of /rvingia and Ailanthus in the Simaroubaceae,
and the recognition of Neckera and Roureopsis, all of which I felt warranted
more discussion. Similarly the use of Scaevola sericea over Scaevola taccada
needed reference to the literature on this major nomenclatural controversy.
I believe the correct name for Scleropyrum wallichianum is Scleropyrum
pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabb. (Mabberley 1977) and that William Theobold
made the combination Ceriops decandra well before Ding Hou (Mabberley
1985}.
These are minor quibbles. The Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak is
excellent and should be included in any library (personal or institutional)
which purports to cover the flora of Southeast Asia. The team that has
produced the two volumes deserves hearty congratulations for what has
been achieved, and encouragement to face the challenges ahead.
References
Brummitt, R. K . 1992 Vascular Plant Families and Genera. Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew.
Leenhouts, P.W. 1962 Loganiaceae. Flora Malesiana, series 1, 16: 293-336.
Mabberley, D.J. 1977 Francis Hamilton’s commentaries with particular
reference to Meliaceae. Taxon 26: 523-540.
Mabberley, D.J. 1985 William Theobald (1829-1908): unwitting reformer
of botanical nomenclature? Taxon 34: 433-444.
Book review: Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak 145
Wong, K.M., & Sugau, J.B. 1996 A revision of Fagraea (Loganiaceae)
Borneo, with notes on related Malesan species and 21 new species.
Sandakania 8: 1-93.
Ian Turner
School of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore
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The Gardens' Bulletin
Singapore — Ce |
OL. 49 (Part 2) December 1997 : ISSN 0374-7859
~~ NATIONAL PARKS BOARD :
Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 259569 Tel: 4741165 Telefax: 4754295 - a
THE GARDENS’ BULLETIN
The Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore publishes papers on plant taxonomy (including revisions),
horticulture, phytogeography, floristics, morphology, anatomy and related fields with
emphasis on plants in the West Malesian region.
EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr Ruth Kiew
(Editor)
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Dr T.W. Foong
(Assist. Editor)
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Dr S.C. Chin
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Dr M.J.E. Coode
Royal Botanic Gardens
Kew, U.K.
Dr R.T. Corlett
University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Dr M.C. Roos
Rijksherbarium
Leiden, Netherlands
Dr E. Soepadmo
Forest Research Institute Malaysia
Kepong, Malaysia
Dr W.K. Tan
Singapore Botanic Gardens
The Gardens’ Bulletin is published twice yearly by the National Parks Board, Singapore.
Neither the National Parks Board nor the Editorial Board is responsible for the opinions or
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Singapore.
Instructions for contributing authors are found on the inside backcover.
Biodiversity in the
Nature Reserves of
Singapore
Edited by
Lena Chan
National Parks Board
Richard T. Corlett
University of Hong Kong
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar,
Singapore, December 1997
BRE OW Nase Bene Harrell
A LILI NE) fro oT! PAR
PAT UNS bo § LEI
The Gardens' Bulletin
Singapore
VOL. 49 (Part 2) December 1997 ISSN 0374-7859
CONTENTS
i enh OME acre eld ad See or apes tas dees htipb acne watiocdaigdnme dvewevmrvcwe can canwacarasendiecren Satauod Kes i
NN Se lth ese gps podem nh dive sian hud ada cdaeas gcndnsiensnd cen ill
Corlett, R.T.
2me vegetation in the Nature Reservesiof Smpapore ..5..:..0....0..c.2s1ec.ensneesecdasthcecoscconseneee 147
Chew, P.T., Saifuddin Suran and Ali [brahim
Checklist of vascular plants in the Nature Reserves of Singapore ............ceceeseeteeeees 161
Lim, K.S.
Bird biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of Singapore ................:cssccsscseseceseeeseeeseeeeeenees 225
Ng, P.K.L. and K.K.P. Lim
The diversity and conservation status of fishes in the Nature Reserves
Sa ONO a Sia hag sah tan cd igs vas ned op sgsis romlmanenivpsedotellana vada pivoweeenanans 245
Ng, P.K.L.
The conservation status of freshwater prawns and crabs in Singapore
ene CaPamRSPearaRS (CPia! ABNEL PM UUMAMG PRE VER 0) inca edhe hotandmecsnnossenehatvesnsetecnsnassnscenvsenseee 267
Khew, S.K. and S.S.H. Neo
Butterfly biodiversity in Singapore with particular reference to the
oe TTS re vce Ac g's Mie) ae ee 273
Seow-Choen, F.
Stick and leaf insect (Phasmida: Insecta) biodiversity in the Nature Reserves
Sr nN LR Be Ne ee ah Stag snlpntunciteninacninsuntnaneene ienadinidsinsied 297
Yang, C.M., H.K. Lua and K.L. Yeo
Semi-aquatic bug (Heteroptera: Gerromorpha) fauna in the Nature Reserves
aN ee lke swidesdoents Ue intecuandinnpcoss 313
Balke, M., L. Hendrich and C.M. Yang
Water beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera) in the Nature Reserves of Singapore .................. a2
Murphy, D.H.
Odonata biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of Singapore ..............cccccsesseseeseeseeeeeseenes 333
Teo, R.C.H. and S. Rajathurai
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians in the Nature Reserves of
Singapore - Diversity, abundance\and distributidm 2:1)... 2k ae eee 353
Date of Publication: 30 March 1999
Published by
National Parks Board
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Cluny Road
Singapore 259569
Printed by Oxford Graphic Printers Pte Ltd
PREFACE
Singapore, despite having a total area of only 648 sq. kilometre, inherited a
rich natural indigenous legacy including over two thousand plant species,
eighty mammal species, a hundred bird species, and forty freshwater fish
species. The Nature Reserves, comprising Bukit Timah Nature Reserve
and Central Catchment Nature Reserve, are situated in the centre of
Singapore and constitute the largest remaining naturally vegetated area.
Although the biodiversity of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve has been well-
studied, prior to the Nature Reserves Survey, documentation relied heavily
on ad hoc, sporadic, and irregular surveys carried out by individual
researchers or groups with interest in specific taxonomic categories. In
contrast, the Central Catchment Nature Reserve was poorly surveyed before
this project.
By the early 1990s, it was apparent that a concerted effort at
scientifically documenting the biodiversity of the largest conservation area
in Singapore was long overdue. In 1991, a physical and biological survey
of the Nature Reserves was proposed with the following broad targets:
1. Geophysical survey on drainage, topography and soil of the Reserves;
and
2. Detailed flora and fauna surveys and identification of specimens.
The Singapore Government financed the physical survey while the
cost of the biological survey was supported with funds provided by Lady
Yuen Peng McNeice, patron of the Singapore Botanic Gardens and the
Cheng Kim Loke Foundation. The project, co-ordinated by the Nature
Conservation Branch of the National Parks Board, spanned from 1992 to
1997. It culminated in a seminar held in December 1997 where the
participating researchers presented their findings.
New records of at least four mammals, two reptiles and three
amphibians and the rediscovery of two reptiles and two amphibians that
had not been sighted in the Nature Reserves for the past thirty years,
amply confirm that the merits of a co-ordinated systematic survey.
The findings have already been put to good use. A Recreational
Masterplan for the Nature Reserves has been formulated taking into account
the distribution of sensitive species. Biological databases have been
established for the taxonomic groups surveyed during this project and this
will form the cornerstone of the proposed National Biodiversity Reference
Centre. The information accumulated forms a reliable baseline for
monitoring studies. There are many more projects in the pipeline that will
utilise the biodiversity data collected, particularly in the field of nature
conservation education.
This survey has indeed been a landmark in the history of nature
il
conservation in Singapore. It has amassed valuable data that should be
made more accessible, to academics as well as the general public. To
reach a wider audience and to provide a single permanent record for
monitoring and future comparisons, much of the data collected during the
survey and presented in the Nature Reserves Seminar has been compiled
into this special issue of the Gardens’ Bulletin.
The work carried out during the Nature Reserves Survey has laid a
firm foundation from which Singapore could springboard into nature
conservation initiatives in the New Millenium.
Dr. Tan Wee Kiat
Chief Executive Officer
National Parks Board
1 February 1999
ill
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Nature Reserves Survey would not have been possible if not for the
foresight of the Singapore Government and Lady Yuen Peng McNeice’s
ardent support for conservation. The generous financial support from
Lady McNeice, the Cheng Kim Loke Foundation and the Singapore
Government is gratefully acknowledged.
Dr. Leong Chee Chiew was instrumental in the initiation of this
project and in subsequently steering its course. He has unstintingly stood
by the project through thick and thin and we are very grateful for it.
The consultants, Mr. Wong Yew Kwan and Professor D. H. Murphy,
contributed to the Nature Reserves Survey in many ways, far beyond their
terms of reference.
For a survey spanning several years, particular credit must be given
to several people who were responsible for the smooth running of the
project. This list includes Ali Ibrahim, Sharon Chan, Chew Ping Ting,
Cheryl Chia, Wendy Kan, Shirley Pottie, Saifuddin Suran, Tay Eng Pin,
Robert Teo and Elspeth Waghorn.
It is impossible to name all the individuals who so magnanimously
contributed their time or expertise to the survey work carried out on the
diverse taxonomic groups. From the Nature Society (Singapore), the
dedicated and exemplary work of the Vertebrate Group and the Bird
Group is most appreciated. Many members from the Department of
Biological Sciences, the Zoological Reference Collection and the Geography
Department of the National University of Singapore participated actively
in the project and many thanks go to them for their unwavering support
and involvement. The number of weekends that Khew Sin Khoon and the
Butterfly Watching and Research Group of the Nature Society (Singapore)
had sacrificed in the documentation of butterfly biodiversity was numerous
and their efforts are gratefully acknowledged. We are much richer in our
knowledge of stick- and leaf-insect biodiversity entirely due to the single-
minded devotion of Dr Francis Seow-Choen and his family to this interesting
taxonomic group. The contribution of the National Institute of Education
of the National Technological University is also acknowledged. We thank
the Public Utilities Board and the Ministry of Defence for their unfailing
assistance in transportation and logistic support.
The fieldwork was greatly facilitated by the staff members of the
Nature Reserves Management Branch, especially the work of the rangers,
the daily rated employees and the drivers. We sincerely thank Sharon
Chan for her continuous and stalwart support in fieldwork co-ordination, a
contribution that cannot be over-acknowledged.
Sharon Chan also played a pivotal role in the initiation and
organisation of the Nature Reserves Seminar and its success can largely be
credited to her efforts. We also acknowledge the contributions of Nasir
Abdullah, Rehan Yusoff, Tay Soon Lian and Sunia Corina Teo from the
Nature Reserves Management Branch and all the other logistic support
staff during the Nature Reserves Seminar. The co-ordinated efforts of
Chew Ping Ting, Cheryl Chia and Saifuddin Suran of the Nature
Conservation Branch ensured the smooth running of the seminar.
This special issue of the Gardens’ Bulletin occupies an unique niche
in the Nature Reserves Survey Project. Many people contributed to bringing
this volume to fruition. In particular, we thank Chew Ping Ting and Cheryl
Chia for the excellent production of the GIS maps and general « “‘-g.
Our profoundest thanks must go to Cheryl Chia for her untiring amendment
and editing of the numerous versions of the papers. Without Cheryl, the
editorial work would have been more tedious and prolonged. Special
thanks are due to Dr Ruth Kiew for her efficient assistance in the general
editing of the papers. We would also like to thank Dr Ian Turner for his
critical comments on some of the papers.
Finally, we thank Dr Tan Wee Kiat and Dr Chin See Chuug for their
unfailing support of the project, which kept the morale high.
To all the above-named and the many more unnamed conuributors,
we express our keenest appreciation for all the time, effort, support and
dedication each and everyone gave to this mammoth task of documenting
the biodiversity of Singapore. This volume stands as a testimony to their
dedication to nature conservation.
Thank you, Terima kasih, Xie xie and Nantri.
Lena Chan & Richard Corlett
1 February 1999
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 147-159.
The Vegetation in the Nature Reserves of Singapore
RICHARD T. CORLETT
Department of Ecology & Biodiversity
University of Hong Kong
Pokfulam Road
Hong Kong, China
Abstract
yz rf
LiIDS
Singapore’s native, non-coastal biota is almost entirely forest-dependent. Progressive
deforestation during the nineteenth century reduced forest cover to isolated patches in a
matris of grassland. All primary forest patches outside the nature reserves were cleared but
protection within the reserves has allowed the growth of secondary forest. The surviving
primary forest patches are still distinct from the oldest secondary forest in their species
diversity and structural complexity. The freshwater swamp forest at Nee Soon is also clearly
distinct from the dryland primary forest. The highest conservation priority must be given to
the primary forest remnants, which support most of the surviving flora, and to the older
second, ‘y forest. Non-forest areas within the reserves should be reforested.
>
Introduction
Vegetation forms the matrix in which both plants and animals live, as well
as supplying the food on which most animals depend. In Singapore’s
continuously hot and wet climate, forest is the natural vegetation on almost
all substrates. Corlett (1991a) estimated that mangrove forest made up
13% of the original forest area, freshwater swamp forest an additional 5%,
and the remainder was lowland dipterocarp forest. Before human impact,
permanent open sites would have been confined to coastal cliffs and sandy
beaches. This basic fact has profound implications for understanding the
biodiversity of modern Singapore: all native, non-coastal species of plants
and animals are adapted to and, usually, dependent on forest, and are thus
adversely affected by deforestation.
There is no evidence for significant forest clearance in the interior of
the island before the nineteenth century, although coastal settlements have
existed for centuries (Corlett, 1992a, 1992b). Most of the deforestation
occurred in the period 1819-1900, after the foundation of the British colony
resulted in a rapid rise in population. Much of the initial clearance of
primary forest was for the cultivation of gambier (Uncaria gambir,
Rubiaceae), which grows best on soil newly cleared of forest and needs a
roughly equal area of forest to provide firewood for boiling the gambier
leaves (Jackson, 1965). The gambier growers moved on when the soil and
:
148 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
firewood supplies were exhausted. The results of this “reckless, migratory
cultivation” were described by Cantley (1884):
Such Crown forests as remain uncut are widely distributed in isolated
patches over the island. These forest patches or clumps are of various
sizes, from half an acre or so to about 25 acres [10 ha], and of no
particular shape; their distance from each other may average a quarter
of a mile [0.4 km] though often exceeding a mile [1.6 km]. The
interspace is generally waste grassland, which supports, as a rule,
only strongly-growing grass known locally as “lalang” [Jmperata
cylindrica].
From 1884, many of the larger forest patches were included in forest
reserves, but most of these were eventually abandoned (Corlett, 1995a).
Primary forest remnants survived only in those areas that have received
continuous protection, all of which are within the current nature reserves
in the central part of the island. Here, the cessation of cultivation and
control of grassland fires allowed the growth of secondary forest, which
restored links between some of the remnant patches. Subsequently,
however, the construction of reservoirs, roads and both recreational and
military facilities has re-fragmented the forest area (Figure 1).
The vegetation of Singapore as a whole has been described by Corlett
(1991a, 1992a). This paper concentrates on the vegetation of the current
nature reserves.
Sources
Singapore has had more than a century of continuous botanical collecting
activity. Checklists for the flora have been published by Ridley (1900),
Keng (1990), Turner et al. (1990) and Turner (1993). New species continue
to be added to a total which now stands at 2323 native species (Ali Ibrahim
et al., 1997). Corlett (1990, 1995b) recorded a total of 843 forest angiosperm
species seen, collected or reported from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve since
records began. Turner (1994) gives the total recorded forest vascular flora
of Singapore as 1673 species (with 912 spp. at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve)
and Turner et al. (1994) estimate that 1196 (71%) of these survive today,
all but a few within the nature reserves. More than 700 vascular plant
species have been recorded from freshwater swamp forest in Singapore
but many of these were only known from areas which had been cleared
(Turner et al., 1996a). The many forest plots enumerated during the forest
surveys described below cover a total of 20 ha, which is only about one
Vegetation 149
Sa | ee artnet
ae ere —rmrcrarrs “2 S ——
SELETAR
-RESERVOR
, REY NN
‘Sy
°)
een
> ~
eal Non-forest a Old Secondary Forest ee Freshwater Swamp Forest
SS Young Secondary Forest Pa Primary Forest Pe rh | OOD on ZO
METRES
Figure 1. Map of the Nature Reserves showing the major vegetation types.
150 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
percent of the total forest area within the reserves. However, much of the
rest of the reserve area has been sampled by collectors within the past
century, with particular attention paid to previously under-collected parts
of the Central Catchment Nature Reserves since 1992. Despite this, more
species undoubtedly remain to be discovered and some currently believed
to be extinct (Turner er al., 1995) have been rediscovered (Kiew & Chan,
in press).
Wee (1964) mapped the vegetation of the nature reserves from the
1955 aerial photographs, followed by field reconnaissance. He recognized
five vegetation types: high forest (recognized only on Bukit Timah),
regenerating high forest, regenerating swamp forest, belukar tua (old
secondary forest), and belukar muda (young secondary forest, shrubland,
grassland and fernland). Hill (1977) mapped the vegetation of the whole
of Singapore, including the nature reserves, from aerial photographs. Within
the reserves, he recognized five vegetation types: lowland rain forest,
freshwater swamp forest, tall secondary forest (with crowns mainly >10 m
high), low secondary forest (<10 m), and grass and scrub (including
Dicranopteris fernlands). Wong et al. (1994), using 1990 aerial photographs,
recognized four vegetation types within the Central Catchment Nature
Reserve: Type 1, consisting of early successional vegetation with only
scattered trees; Type 2, with many small-crowned trees 8-15 m tall; Type
3, with taller, larger-crowned trees; and Type 4, with some very large trees.
These structural types were mapped in Turner et al. (1996b), who also
compared this structural classification with a floristic ordination and
classification of Wong et al.’s (1994) plot data. Metcalfe et al. (1998) classified
the forest types in a 200 m x 200 m grid at Bukit Timah into four types:
near-pristine forest with no visible signs of human disturbance (around
10% of the forest area), other primary forest (52%), old secondary forest
(31%), and young secondary forest (7%).
The first quantitative vegetation studies within the area now covered
by the reserves were done in 1933 by Corner, in a patch of primary
freshwater swamp forest along the old Mandai Road (Corner, 1978). He
enumerated slightly over a hectare of this forest, which was felled for an
extension of Seletar Reservoir in 1940. Then, in the late 1950s, Gilliland
and co-workers measured and identified all plants within three 1000 feet x
6 feet (305 x 2m) transects in the nature reserves: one in regenerating high
forest south of MacRitchie Reservoir (Gilliland & Wantman, 1958), one in
tall secondary forest adjacent to Lornie Road and the golf course (Gilliland,
1958), and one in younger secondary forest in the Mandai area (Gilliland
& Mohd. Jabil, 1958). Gilliland named the three forest types the Shorea/
Agrostistachys community, the Rhodamnia/Champereia community, and
the Eugenia/Arthrophyllum community, respectively.
= eS ee eee -
Vegetation |e |
Wong (1987) enumerated all trees > 24 inches (61cm) girth at breast
height (gbh) in twenty 0.4 acre (0.16 ha) clusters of four circular subplots
located systematically on a grid at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Swan
(1988) mapped, measured and identified all stems > 2 cm dbh in two 0.24
ha plots on Bukit Timah, in Fern Valley and Jungle Falls Valley,
respectively. Corlett (1991b) measured and identified all stems > 2 cm dbh
in fifteen 0.1 ha plots in tall secondary forest in the Central Catchment
Nature Reserve. An additional five plots were located in primary forest
remnants (Corlett, unpublished). Sim et al. (1992) included a 225 m’ plot
at Bukit Timah in a survey of Adinandra belukar in Singapore. In by far
the biggest survey to date, Wong ef al. (1994) measured and identified
trees > 30 cm gbh in sixty-two 0.2 ha clusters of four circular subplots in
the Central Catchment Nature Reserve and Turner et al. (1996c)
enumerated herbaceous plants in 46 of these clusters. In 1993, the Center
for Tropical Forest Science and the National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University, established a 2 ha permanent plot in
the primary forest core of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (LaFrankie et al.,
1996; Ercelawn et al., 1998). All trees > 1 cm dbh have now been censused
twice, in 1993 and 1995, allowing the assessment of short-term recruitment
within the plot.
Vegetation
Dryland Primary Forest
All studies of the nature reserves have recognized a distinct forest type
characterized by the presence of huge individual trees, including
dipterocarps. It is likely that all the patches of this type were logged for
timber and exploited for firewood before and, probably, to some extent,
after protection. This exploitation seems to have been relatively light at
Bukit Timah and may have been extremely heavy in some patches kept as
firewood reserves for gambier plantations in the centre of the island.
However, these distinctions have been largely obscured by a century or
more of regeneration so it is now simplest and most informative to refer to
all this forest as primary, i.e., forest which has never been completely
cleared (Corlett, 1994). The continuity of forest occurrence on a site results
in a richer flora than even the oldest secondary forests (Corlett, 1995c;
Turner et al., 1997). The total area of dryland primary forest in the Nature
Reserves is approximately 192 ha, 80% of which is within the Central
Catchment Nature Reserve.
Most of the dryland primary forest remnants in Singapore consist of
lowland dipterocarp forest, with members of the family Dipterocarpaceae
1S2 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
(Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Shorea) dominant among the large
trees. The species composition in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve
most closely matches the Red Meranti-Keruing forest type of Wyatt-Smith
(1963, 1964). Most of the primary forest on Bukit Timah Hill can be
distinguished as coastal hill dipterocarp forest by the dominance of Shorea
curtisii and Dipterocarpus caudatus subsp. penangianus (Wong, 1987; Swan,
1988; LaFrankie et al., 1996), but the flora is otherwise similar to that of
the patches in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Other prominent
large tree species in the dryland primary forest include several members of
the Burseraceae, Adenanthera bicolor (Leguminosae), Dyera costulata
(Apocynaceae), Gluta wallichii (Anacardiaceae), Ixonanthes icosandra
(Ixonanthaceae), Koompassia malaccensis (Leguminosae) and Mangifera
griffithii (Anacardiaceae). The major families of smaller trees and shrubs
are the Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Rubiaceae.
Woody climbers have been ignored in most plot surveys and undercollected
in general. Rattans (spiny, climbing palms in the genera Calamus,
Daemonorops, Korthalsia and Plectocomia) are particularly abundant at
Bukit Timah and in some of the primary forest patches in the central
catchment area. The other major families of large, woody climbers are the
Rubiaceae (Uncaria), Annonaceae (Artabotrys, Fissistigma), Apocynaceae
(Leuconotis, Willughbeia), Leguminosae (Dalbergia, Derris, Entada,
Spatholobus) and Connaraceae (Rourea). Ferns and several families of
monocotyledons dominate the herb flora, but herb diversity is low in
Singapore’s forests, and not strongly differentiated between types (Turner
et al., 1996c).
Primary Freshwater Swamp Forest
In all floristic surveys - and, for that matter, most faunistic surveys - the
most distinctive forest type is the freshwater swamp forest at Nee Soon.
This swamp system is extremely complex and we do not know enough to
explain the patterns observed. Indeed, they are probably not explicable in
terms of the present day environment, since the all-important water regime
must have been drastically altered by changes both up and down stream of
the existing remnants. Turner et al. (1996a) bring together current
knowledge of the Nee Soon swamp forest and estimate the total area as
about 87 ha. Swamp forest occurs in low-lying areas where the water table
is close to the soil surface and the soil is usually rich in organic matter.
Many of the most characteristic tree species produce striking stilt roots
(e.g., Palaquium xanthochymum, Sapotaceae and Xylopia fusca,
Annonaceae) and/or pneumatophores of various types (plank-like in
Lophopetalum multinervium, Celastraceae) illustrated in Corner (1978),
Vegetation 153
presumably as an adaptation to this substrate and the periodic floods to
which most of the forest is subject.
Secondary Forests
Secondary forest is the most extensive vegetation type in the Nature
Reserves, covering a total area of about 1560 ha. Although different types
of secondary forest often seem sharply distinct at their boundaries on the
ground and in aerial photographs, ordination and classification techniques
show that they are all part of a floristic continuum (Corlett, 1991b; Turner
et al., 1997). Most authors have interpreted this continuum as representing
stages in successional development after the abandonment of cultivation.
However, it is possible that much of the variation reflects degrees of site
degradation, and that areas abandoned at the same time may have very
different vegetation. Unfortunately, we cannot usually date the start of
forest succession sufficiently accurately to test this hypothesis.
The strongest evidence against “time since abandonment” as the
only determining factor is the striking persistence of some - but by no
means all - of the patches of open, scrubby vegetation between a vegetation
map based on 1955 aerial photographs (Wee, 1964) and the present day,
43 years later. The ground in these areas is typically covered in a dense
growth of the fern Dicranopteris linearis, grasses or, occasionally, sedges.
Trees, particularly Adinandra dumosa (Theaceae) and Rhodamnia cinerea
(Myrtaceae), occur as scattered clumps and isolated individuals. Fire has
undoubtedly been a factor in some cases, but soil factors or the inhibitory
effects of a dense herbaceous ground cover may also be important.
Whatever the explanation, these persistent open areas should not be seen
as a model for the early stages of succession in areas now covered in tall
secondary forest. For these latter areas, presumably on more fertile soils,
the first stage of forest succession seems to have been the dense Adinandra-
dominated forest, which can be seen today in a few places within the
reserves and several areas outside (Corlett, 1991b; Sim et al., 1992). Holttum
(1954) reported that in 1930-40 “there were very large areas of dense,
almost pure Adinandra forest” in the catchment area, although much of
this was felled for use as poles just before and during the war. Macaranga
conifera (Euphorbiaceae), while apparently not a normal component of
this community, becomes prominent in regeneration after fire or cutting,
presumably in response to the increased nutrient supply (Corlett, 1991b).
Structural and floristic classifications of the secondary forests within
the reserves do not agree well (Turner et al., 1996b, 1997) but most sites
can be arranged along a successional gradient, whether or not this represents
time since initiation of succession. Rhodamnia cinerea (Myrtaceae) is
154 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
present, and often dominant, at all sites, but the other components are
more variable. At one extreme are sites where the light-demanding pioneers,
Adinandra dumosa (Theaceae) and Macaranga conifera (Euphorbiaceae),
are still prominent, tree crowns are small and indistinct on aerial
photographs, and the canopy height ranges from 8-15 m. At the other
extreme, where the canopy has attained 15-25 m, some tree crowns are
larger, and most light-demanding species have been eliminated. At this
stage, the forest is dominated by tree species in the families Myrtaceae
(Rhodamnia, Syzygium), Guttiferae (Calophyllum, Garcinia), and
Lauraceae (Litsea), with Campnospermum auriculatum (Anacardiaceae),
Elaeocarpus spp. (Elaeocarpaceae), Gynotroches axillaris (Rhizophoraceae),
Ixonanthes reticulata (Ixonanthaceae) and Timonius wallichianus
(Rubiaceae). The giant specimens of Syzygium grandis (Myrtaceae) in
some areas were, apparently, planted as fire-breaks in Jmperata grassland
in the late nineteenth century.
Non-forest vegetation
There has been no detailed study of the non-forest vegetation within the
Nature Reserves. Exotic grasses and legumes dominate some recently-
abandoned areas on the fringes, while native grasses and the fern,
Dicranopteris, cover most open areas in the interior. There are also some
large patches of native shrubland, dominated by the Melastoma
malabathricum (Melastomatacaea), Dillenia suffruticosa (Dilleniaceae),
Adinandra dumosa (Theaceae) and Macaranga heynei (Euphorbiaceae).
Discussion |
Because of the rarity of open habitats in the primeval landscape of
Singapore, most of Singapore’s surviving non-coastal biodiversity is confined
to forest. Man-made, non-forest vegetation is typically species-poor and/or
dominated by exotics (Corlett, 1992a, 1992b). Most of the forest vegetation
was cleared during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with a
minimum probably being reached in the period 1910-1940. Many extinctions
occurred during this period of deforestation, with the vertebrates most
vulnerable and the vascular plants least (Corlett & Turner, 1997).
Subsequently, the forest area has increased as secondary forest developed
but extinctions have continued as a result of additional pressures in some
areas and, no doubt, as a consequence of the vulnerability of small
populations to chance extinction. Secondary forests are now much more
extensive than the primary forest remnants they surround (Figure 1) and
Vegetation 155
some are probably a hundred years or more old. However, secondary
forests in Singapore have accumulated species slowly and selectively, and
are still floristically impoverished in comparison with the primary forest
(Corlett & Turner, 1997; Turner ef al., 1997). A major reason for this
relative impoverishment seems to be the failure of many primary forest
species to disperse out from their refuges, and at least part of this can be
attributed to the disproportionate extinction of large seed-dispersing
frugivores in Singapore. Preliminary results from the 2-ha permanent plot
at Bukit Timah suggest that the same problem may be limiting regeneration
of some animal-dispersed species within the primary forest, particularly
members of the family Myristicaceae (Ercelawn et al., 1998). The elevated
abundance of seed-predating rodents may be another factor limiting
colonization of new sites. Whatever the explanation, there is no doubt that
preserving all the remaining primary forest remnants from destruction or
disturbance must be the basis of any plant conservation strategy in Singapore
(Turner & Corlett, 1996).
The importance of the primary forest does not mean, however, that
the more extensive secondary forests are of no value. These forests buffer
the tiny primary remnants from the harsh external environment and provide
the major habitat in Singapore for all those forest-dependent animal species,
which do not require the more complex structure and greater floristic
diversity of the primary forest. Moreover, both the structural complexity
and floristic diversity of the secondary forest will increase with time. The
secondary forests are the future of the nature reserves.
Most of the non-forest vegetation of the reserves is of limited
conservation value. The native shrubland dominated by Melastoma, Dillenia,
Adinandra and Macaranga heynei may be an exception, since the continuous
supply of nectar and small fruits it provides, in contrast to the more “pulsed”
supply in the older forest types, may increase the carrying capacity of the
reserves as a whole for nectar- and fruit-eating animals. In contrast, the
marginal areas dominated by exotic grasses and/or legumes, the bigger
patches of Dicranopteris fernland, and the grasslands dominated by /mperata
and other species, support little wildlife. Reforestation of these areas with
native species would help reduce fragmentation and increase the total area
of habitat available for forest-dependent plant and animal species.
Acknowledgments
A comprehensive list of those who have contributed to this paper would
exceed the limits of editorial tolerance, but I would like to offer special
thanks to P.T. Chew, H.T.W Tan, I.M. Turner, J.V. LaFrankie, F.R. Swan,
D.H. Murphy, Ali bin Ibrahim, and Haji Samsuri bin Haji Ahmad.
156 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
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of Tropical Forest Science. 4: 151-161.
Corlett, R.T. 1992a. The angiosperm flora of Singapore 1. Introduction.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 44: 3-21.
Corlett, R.T. 1992b. The ecological transformation of Singapore: 1819-
1990. Journal of Biogeography. 19: 411-420.
Corlett, R.T. 1994. What is secondary forest? Journal of Tropical Ecology.
10: 445-447.
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Vegetation 157
Ercelawn, A.C., J.V. LaFrankie, S.K.Y. Lum & S.K. Lee. (1998). Short-
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photographs. Biological Conservation. 77: 177-183.
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Vegetation 159
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Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 161-223.
Checklist of Vascular Plants in the Nature Reserves of
Singapore
P.T. CHEW, SAIFUDDIN SURAN AND ALI IBRAHIM
Singapore Botanic Gardens,
1 Cluny Road,
Singapore 259569
Abstract
This vascular plant checklist of the Nature Reserves of Singapore is a compilation of
historical records (herbarium specimens, published and unpublished checklists) as well as
recent field observations and studies. A total of 1634 species of vascular plants have been
recorded in the Nature Reserves since the last century, of which 443 (or 29% of the
indigenous species) have not been seen during the last 10 years.
Introduction
The current Nature Reserves of Singapore consist of the Bukit Timah
Nature Reserve (BTNR) and the Central Catchment Nature Reserve
(CCNR). Floristic inventory and research in the past were mostly
concentrated at BI'NR, the Bukit Timah Reserve as it was formerly known.
It was one of the first Forest Reserves to be established in Singapore in
1883.
In 1951, the Nature Reserves Ordinance was enacted and the Central
Catchment Area, now known as the Central Catchment Nature Reserve,
was included as one of the five Forest Reserves. In 1990, the newly gazetted
National Parks Act established a National Parks Board, which acts as a
trustee for the current Nature Reserves.
The objectives of the Nature Reserves are, as stated in Part II of the
National Parks Act 1990:
(a) the propagation, protection and preservation of the plants
(flora) and animals (fauna) of Singapore;
(b) the study, research and preservation of objects and places of
aesthetic, historical or scientific interest;
(c) the study, research and dissemination of knowledge in botany,
horticulture, biotechnology and natural and local history;
162 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
and the following was added as Part VII in the National Parks Act 1996:
(d) recreational and educational use by the public.
In 1991, a six-year Nature Reserves Survey (NRS) project was initiated by
the National Parks Board (NParks), primarily to inventory the physical
and biological components of the Nature Reserves, particularly, that of the
lesser known CCNR.
Materials
The documentation of Singapore’s flora started in the late nineteenth
century. A literature and herbarium search at the Singapore Botanic
Gardens Herbarium (SING) yielded a long list of historical flora records
of the Nature Reserves of Singapore. These include Report on the Forests
of the Straits Settlements (Cantley, 1884), Flora of Singapore (Ridley, 1900),
Freshwater Swamp-forest of South Johore and Singapore (Corner, 1978);
and specimen records by H.N. Ridley, I-H. Burkill, R.E. Holttum, E.J.H.
Corner, and more recently, J. Sinclair in the 1950s—1960s.
After a lapse of about 30 years, interest in biodiversity revived when
field collections were carried out at Lower Peirce (within the CCNR)
under an independently commissioned survey for a separate project
proposal in 1990. This was followed by the NRS project, of which floristic
inventory was the primary component during the period 1991 to 1994.
Field surveys of the CCNR flora were conducted by NParks staff and
consultants (Wong ef al., 1994; Ali et al., 1997), and researchers and student
assistants from the National University of Singapore (Turner et al., 1994,
1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997).
Besides these recent compilations of Singapore flora, cheernete
(Turner et al., 1990, Turner,1993, 1995; Wee & Ng, 1994; Ng & Wee, 1994;
Chin et al., 1995: Tan, 1995) and selected flora inventory research carried
out in the Nature Reserves in the last decade (Wong, 1987; Swan, 1988;
Corlett, 1990, 1991: Sim et al., 1992; Tan et al., 1995; LaFrankie et al., 1996;
Chua et al., 1996) are available.
In addition, the flora in a two-hectare plot in the BTNR is under a
long-term population dynamic study carried out by the National Institute
of Education, Nanyang Technological University, in conjunction with the
Center for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS).
Checklist of vascular plants 163
Methods
The compiled list of indigenous vascular plant species (Appendix 1) that
are or were probably found growing in the Nature Reserves since the last
century is derived from the various publications listed above, herbarium
records in the Singapore Botanic Gardens Herbarium, and the unpublished
checklists noted below. Naturalised species sampled in the survey are
recorded in Appendix 2. The record sources for the four columns, R, H, P
and S, in Appendices 1 and 2 are as follows:
R — records from field collections, published data from NRS, and published
data during the period 1991 — 1997 from the “Additions to the Flora of
Singapore” and “The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore” series published in
the Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore, 44 — 49.
H — herbarium specimens records in SING.
P — publication records denoted as follows: C — Corlett (1990, 1991); F —
Wee (1983, 1984); N — Corner (1978); T — Chua et al. (1996), Tan et al.
(1995), Tan (1995, 1997); W — Wong (1987).
S — unverified records denoted as follows: 1 — observations from NParks
staff and NRS unpublished checklists, 2 —- unpublished checklist of BTINR
flora (Corlett, late 80s), 3 — collections from the Centre for Natural Product
Research (CNPR) project and 4 — collections from the CTFS project.
The records reported under S are non-exhaustive. Sources 1, 3 and 4
are complementary to R while source 2 is complementary to H, based on
dates of collections. Of the new unverified records discovered from this
survey that are not found in the Singapore checklist (Turner, 1993), those
that have not been recorded as far south as Johore, the nearest state of
Peninsula Malaysia, were left out.
Observations
The total vascular plant records for the Nature Reserves of Singapore is
1634 species, as listed in Appendices 1 and 2. Of these species, 1525 are
indigenous (Appendix 1) and 109 (7%) are exotic (Appendix 2). For the
NRS, 916 species (under R) were recorded with an additional 258 species
(1,3 & 4 under S) noted during the period.
164 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
A total of 1190 vascular plant species are recorded for the Nature
Reserves within the last 10 years, of which 341 species or 29% (excluding
those listed in recent publications under P) are new records for the Nature
Reserves.
Of the 1267 old records (those older than 10 years) for the Nature
Reserves, 443 (35%) species were not seen during this NRS project period.
Some of these species may be extinct as a result of habitat loss (tidal
freshwater swamp where the present Upper Seletar Reservoir resides) and
forest fragmentation due to clearing and cultivation within the century.
Others probably still survive in the Nature Reserves.
Out of 1190 species recorded within the last ten years in the Nature
Reserves, 90 (7.5%) are exotic. In comparison, only 11 (0.8%) species out
of 1297 species were exotic for records earlier than the last ten years, an
eight fold increase in ten years.
Discussion
From the literature survey, it can be seen that in the last few decades there
was an absence of field work in the CCNR. It is noteworthy that prior to
the NRS, the Singapore flora checklist comprises mainly records more
than 30 years old. Consequently, the NRS inventory sets an important
milestone in the documentation of flora in Singapore in filling this gap.
Records of lianas, herbaceous, climbing and creeping epiphytes,
terrestrial ferns, sedges, grasses, and aquatic and semi-aquatic flora are
also expected to be not as complete as that of the tree flora in the NRS, as
these were randomly sampled rather than sampled intentionally as defined
taxonomic groups. ?
As noted above, exotics have been invading the Nature Reserves
within the last few decades. The number of exotic species establishing in
the Nature Reserves should be monitored in future surveys for management
implications in the conservation of indigenous species.
Acknowledgements
We should like to thank Drs. R.T. Corlett, H.T.W. Tan, I.M. Turner,
S.K.Y. Lum, J.V. LaFrankie and their students and assistants, and Mr Y.K.
Wong, D.H. Murphy and E.S.K. Tang for providing published and
unpublished flora checklists and records of the Singapore Nature Reserves.
Checklist of vascular plants 165
References
Ali Ibrahim, P.T. Chew, Hj Sidek Kiah & J.T.K. Lai. 1997. New records of
plant species from Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 49: 49-54.
Cantley, N. 1884. Report on the Forests of the Straits Settlements. Singapore
Printing Office, Singapore.
Chin, S.C., R.T. Corlett, Y.C. Wee & S.Y. Geh (eds.). 1995. Rain forest in
the city: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin
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International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Singapore.
Corlett, R.T. 1990. Flora and reproductive phenology of the rain forest at
Bukit Timah, Singapore. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 6: 55-63.
Corlett, R.T. 1991. Plant succession on degraded land in Singapore. Journal
of Tropical Forest Science. 4: 151-161.
Corner, E.J.H. 1978. The freshwater swamp-forest of South Johore and
Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. Suppl. 1: 59-224.
LaFrankie, J.V.,S.K. Lee & A.C. Ercelawn. 1996. Tree population structure
in a tropical forest fragment in Singapore. Asian Journal of Tropical
Biology. 2: 39-48.
National Parks Act 1990. Republic of Singapore Government Gazette Acts
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the Royal Asiatic Society. 33: 27-196.
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anthropogenic heath forest in Singapore. Vegetatio. 102: 125-137.
Swan, F.R. Jr. 1988. Tree distribution patterns in the Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 41: 59-81.
166 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
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Timah Nature Reserve. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. Suppl. 3: 29-59.
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Turner, I.M. 1995. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Malaya. Gardens’
Bulletin Singapore. 47: 1-757.
Turner, I.M., K.S. Chua & H.T.W. Tan. 1990. A checklist of the native and
naturalized vascular plants of the Republic of Singapore. Journal of the
Singapore National Academy of Science. 18-19: 58-88.
Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan, K.S. Chua & D.J. Metcalfe. 1994. Recent
botanical collections from the Nature Reserves of Singapore. Gardens’
Bulletin Singapore. 46: 1-36.
Turner, I.M., C.M. Boo, Y.K. Wong, P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1996a.
Freshwater swamp forest in Singapore, with particular reference to that
found around the Nee Soon Firing Ranges. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore.
48: 129-157.
Turner, I.M., H.T.W. Tan & K.S. Chua. 1996b. Relationships between
herb layer and canopy composition in a tropical rain forest successional
mosaic in Singapore. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 12: 843-851.
Turner, I.M., Y.K. Wong, P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1996c. Rapid
assessment of tropical rain forest successional status using aerial
photographs. Biological Conservation. 77: 177-183.
Turner, I.M., Y.K. Wong, P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1997. Tree species
richness in primary and old secondary tropical forest in Singapore.
Biodiversity and Conservation. 6: 537-543.
Wee, Y.C. 1983. A Guide to the Ferns of Singapore. Singapore Science
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Checklist of vascular plants 167
Wee, Y.C. & P.K.L. Ng (eds.). 1994. A First Look at Biodiversity in
Singapore. National Council on the Environment, Singapore.
Wong, Y.K. 1987. Ecology of the trees of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 40: 45-76.
Wong, Y.K., P.T. Chew & Ali Ibrahim. 1994. The tree communities of the
Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin
Singapore. 46: 37-78.
168 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Appendix 1. Indigenous vascular plant species in the Nature
Reserves.
(R — records from field collections, published data from NRS, and published data
during the period 1991-1997 from the “Additions to the Flora of Singapore” and
“The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore” series published in the Gardens’ Bulletin
Singapore 44-49.
H — herbarium specimens records in SING.
P — publication records denoted as follows: C—Corlett (1990, 1991); F-Wee (1983,
1984); N-Corner (1978); T—Chua et al. (1996), Tan et al. (1995), Tan (1995, 1997);
W-Wong (1987).
S — unverified records denoted as follows: 1—observations from NParks staff and
NRS unpublished checklists, 2-unpublished checklist of BTNR flora (Corlett, late
80s), 2—collections from the Centre for Natural Product Research (CNPR) project
and 4—collections from the CTFS project.)
Species sii site din i elie ee
|ACANTHACEAR, (000010) 00 3
[Hygrophila ringens (LJ R.BrexSteud st # ||
Justicia vasculosa Wall, yn
| Peristrophe roxburghiana (Schult) Bremek. || |
Reaeltia repens TTS 1 TNS SN
Siaurogyne griffithiana (Nees) Kuntze || |
| Siaurogyne setigera (Nees) Kune t+! ||
EE
PACTINIDIACE AR % 11) 15 YAU ee
| Saurauia pentapetala (Jack) Hoogland | t+
a anise iain
/ADIANTACEAR) }),. Wits 208 Iw AAS aa
Adiantum flabellulatum L.
Syngramma alismifolia (C. Presl) J.J. Sm.
Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw.
Taenitis interrupta Hook. & Grev.
3
ALANGIACEAE
Alangium ebenaceum (C.B. Clarke) Harms
Alangium griffithii (C.B. Clarke) Harms
Alangium nobile (C.B. Clarke) Harms
Alangium ridleyi King
Checklist of vascular plants 169
ANACARDIACEAE
Bouea macrophylla Gritt.
Rema
LE eA We ye ina
Campnosperma auriculatum (Blume) Hook.f. ee ee eee
ae ee
:
[Mangifera lagenifera Gift, |
[Mangifera macrocarpaBlume |
[Mangifera odorata Grit |
ces
hep edlal
Melanochyla auriculata Hook.f.
Melanochyla bracteata King aa A
Melanochyla caesia (Bl.) Ding Hou
a ee Ee Ee ee
2 Eee ee ee
Swintonia schwenkii (Teijsm. & Binn.) Teijsm. & Binn. Pin Te ae
EE SEE ee ee
one a a a
[Ancistrocladus tectorius(Lour) Mer. f# | | |
(SAE Ee EE
Ee ea DS
[Anisophyllea disticha (Jack) Baill, f+ [+ [NL
oo
-f
fo
170 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Ee aR 33 0 2. Mie soe leon amano
AR RR Cit 8 yc Ree TN,
a eee om P 2i2ilale Zigio = ko < o
=
Checklist of vascular plants ryt
Polyalthia glauca (Hassk.) F. Muell.
Polyalthia hookeriana King
Polyalthia hypoleuca Hook.f. & Thomson
Polyalthia jenkensii (Hook.f. & Thomson) Hook.f. & Thomson
Polyalthia lateriflora (Blume) King
oa
Polyalthia macropoda King
Polyalthia rumphii (Blume) Merr.
Polyalthia sclerophylla Hook.f. & Thomson
Polyalthia sumatrana (Migq.) Kurz
Popowia fusca King
Popowia pisocarpa (Blume) Endl.
Popowia tomentosa Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson
Pyramidanthe prismatica (Hook.f. & Thomson) J. Sinclair | +
Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston
Uvaria curtisti King
Uvaria grandiflora Roxb. ex Hornem.
Uvaria hirsuta Jack
Uvaria leptpoda (King) R.E. Fr.
Uvaria pauci-ovulata Hook.f. & Thomson
oo
Xylopia caudata Hook.f. & Thomson
Xylopia ferruginea (Hook.f. & Thomson) Hook.f. & Thomson | +
Xylopia fusca Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson
Xylopia magna Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson
Xylopia malayana Hook.f. & Thomson
APOCYNACEAE |
Alstonia angustifolia Wall. ex A. DC.
Alstonia angustiloba Miq.
QD
Q
Zz
Pe
Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don
Alstonia pneumatophora Back. ex L.G. den Berger
Alstonia spatulata Blume
Alyxia reinwardtii Blume
Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston
Dyera costulata (Miq.) Hook.f.
Ichnocarpus serpyllifolius (Blume) P.I. Forst.
Kibatalia maingayi (Hook.f.) R.E. Woodson
172 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
:
i)
phenat|
pet
LAGE
[Tabernaemontana peduncularis Wal. | | |
| Urceola brachysepala Hook fii) | bn oat) A
| Uroeola elastica Roxby...) vu) Smile a
| Ureeola torulosa Hookef iia spat anal he eee a
| Willughbeia angustifolia (Mig) Marker. | | + | |
| Willughbeia edulisRorb. |e
[Willughbeia flavescens Dyer exHookf | | + IN|
Willughbeia tenuiflora Dyer ex Hook.f. +
Wrightia laevis Hook.f.
of
of
+
ft
AQUIFOLIACEAE
Ilex cymosa Blume
Ilex macrophylla Hook.f.
Ilex maingayi Hook.f.
ARACEAE
Aglaonema nebulosum N.E. Br.
Aglaonema nitidum (Jack) Kunth
Aglaonema simplex Blume
Alocasia denudata Engl.
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson
Amorphophallus prainii Hook.f.
Amydrium medium (Zoll. & Moritzi) Nicolson
Anadendrum montanum (Blume) Schott
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Cryptocoryne griffithii Schott
i)
Cyrtosperma merkusii (Hassk.) Schott
Checklist of vascular plants ry
Homalomena humilis (Jack) Hook.f.
(Hassk.) Engl.
Homalomena sagittifolia Jungh. ex Schott
(L.) Thw.
+
Rhaphidophora korthalsii Schott
) Engl.
Schismatoglottis calyptrata (Roxb.) Zoll. & Moritzi
a oe a Be a,
SIZISIS LF IE ae | S| ope ey hee
=|s S |S /8 Ss |S S-iS oa
S/S Se (= sis ais Ss 3
= |= alo lo = ae Ee ee
S15 me St Ss 1S S 1S is
S18 a {8 |S sis Sis is is
ee = |/a1s em | eS 1S SS
SiS S/S |s s |s sifis s
StS Se if is a Se 15
ae 8 Be a ae wm jo 1S |e
— S jo Ne a1 |= l99
Se 9 ~ : og > ee = S Sy
a = ae ‘a Le is
— — = = ~~
igs) = > S S S| a 2 ras
S/R: - iS PS =. /8 = ~
IT iln a. —~ | >
wy @’) 818 2). || ee aes
> = Cin ea ees
—
| : 2) So te 1S
= | a st |S | tri |e
5 ~h es ee
fe) i a
re)
2 a
aw Ss)
se =
Schismatoglottis wallichii (Roxb.) Hook.f.
Typhonium roxburghii Schott
Arthrophyllum diversifolium Blume
Aralidium pinnatifitidum (Jungh. & de Vriese) Mig.
Thottea grandiflora Rottb.
+4.
+
NPM PN] } we fy [rw eal ieee NN} Sil Reno ams
i) NW }t
Cynanchum ovalifolium Wight
Dischidia albiflora Griff.
Dischidia cochleata Blume
> > v4 “a > | Se
Z z P| ie isle = |§
_ n ‘4 > > gees
= _ i S “ SPS
jo) = ~ a 1S
~ = = Ss oa = |<
- ° > a @ <i
= 6 Oo] ISIS |e S |8
2 = S| |e la|e = 18
Q wa)
= = — ae aap bs
> les) o ls
aa rj = Blea
> *
—_ = Poe
o =
7 r
tale
=
3
Fa)
:
N
SST a A
Dischidia hirsuta (Blume) Decne.
Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr.
174
BOMBACACEAE
Coelostegia griffithii Benth.
Durio griffithii (Mast.) Bakh.
Durio singaporensis Ridl.
Neesia altissima (Blume) Blume
Neesia malayana Bakh.
Neesia synandra Mast.
Ce
~_
fast
=
Ss
io
=
~~
gS
as
=
ie)
aS
g
~~
=
~
~
2)
>
om
ee)
(om
Lose 3
5
Sh
Desa
ive)
oO
(coin
Ou
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Checklist of vascular plants 175
Gymnosiphon aphyllus Blume
TUF
PULL F
PAL
PUTT EEE EEE
[Canarium patentinervium Mig. tL
OSES? SESS Ee Ee Ee
[Dacryodes cosiaia (Benn) HJ.Lam | + LWT
[Dacryodes incurvata(Engl)HILam | HINT
[Dacryodes taxa (Benn.)HJtam t+ + wT
[Dacryodes longifolia (King) H.Lam | | |
[Dacryodes rostrata (Blume) HJ.Lam | +L + LNW
[Dacryodes rugosa (Blume) HJ.Lam | HW
[Suniriaapicwigaa Benn | t+ LC
OSE) re re a Eee
[Santiria griffithii(Hookf) Eng | +L} NW
Santiria laevigata Blume Pot ea ae
UNE ere RS esis es
Santiria rubiginosa Blume +
Santiria tomentosa Blume
Triomma malaccensis Hook.f.
CAMPANULACEAE
Lobelia zeylanica L.
CAPPARACEAE
Capparis micracantha DC. ~
= |Z
176 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Pi:
:
a:
(AKER
Bias
|BhesapaniculataArn, |
[Bhesarobusia (Roxb) DingHou | | |
[Cassine viburnifotia (uss) DingHou | t+ LT
[EwonymusjavanicusBlume | LNT
[Kokoona reflexa (Lawson) DingHou [+ | CW
[Lophopetalum multinervium Rid. | *# t+ IN|
[Lophopetalum pachyphyltumKing | t+ ||
[Lophopetalum wightianum Am. t+ T+ TC |
| Salacia korthalsiana Mig.) ws fd AE |
| Salacia macrophylla Blume =| eed)
| Salacia viminea Wall. exLawsom, | dA
Se ee
}CHLORANTHACEAE «00 ei
Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc. ho lea ek deli aa
Pet
|CHRYSOBALANACEAE | ee
Atuna racemosa Raft.
Licania splendens (Korth.) Prance
Maranthes corymbosa Blume
Parastemon urophyllus (Wall. ex A. DC.) A. DC.
Parinari costata (Korth.) Blume
Parinari oblongifolia Hook.f.
COMBRETACEAE
Combretum sundaicum Miq.
_ Sic as ase eae pneesientias ceeded hi eeeanitemeenyeaiecimeminadaesaeeteeesin aha eaeiene epeetinnnamedhadenddoeeaatae ete er eet oe ee
Terminalia phellocarpa King
Terminalia subspathulata King
[Salacia grandiftoraKua | |
28 UE RE Cheese ae Kye an nm Nn fomnmtntnsnipyed yest honk tbe ih ad we ipl ewer e
Checklist of vascular plants yy
Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC.
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.
T
|
o
Z
Z
>
~
>
ae
eo
>
eo
=
Q Z, Z Zz
Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh.
of
Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr.
Connarus ferrugineus Jack
Connarus grandis Jack
Connarus monocarpus L.
Connarus planchonianus Schellenb.
Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz
Rourea fulgens Planch.
aes) phe
S e
= —
S S
i z
S 5
3
= 3S
OS a
S mn
> —
= =
w Se
_ an
jab)
(@)
=
5%
Rourea mimosoides (Vahl) Planch.
Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Leenh.
CONVALLARIACEAE
Peliosanthes teta Andrews
+
CONVOLVULACEAE
178
Argyreia ridleyi (Prain) Prain ex Ooststr.
Erycibe griffithii C.B. Clarke
Erycibe leucoxyloides King ex Prain
Erycibe maingayi C.B. Clarke
Erycibe malaccensis C.B. Clarke
Erycibe tomentosa Blume
Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br.
Merremia hederacea (Burm.f.) Hallier f.
Merremia umbellata (L.) Hallier f.
Neuropeltis racemosa Wall.
Xenostegia tridentata (L.) D.F. Austin & Staples
Mastixia pentandra Blume
Mastixia trichotoma Blume +
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
ne \ ome ios) NO | NM | NO
i)
}cosraCeam | ee
[Costus globoms Blume ee
[Costus speciosus (I. Konig)Sm tL |
CERES OES) SAP AEE S|
}CRYPTERONIACEAE) 4 hi
| Crypteronia griffshii CBClarke | tT
(ORAS BOT WIT i
[CIENOLOPHONAGEAE =| | |
[Cienolophon parvifolus Oliv. | ee
cy 77 Sa ee ee
}CUCURBITACEAE Yo)
| Trichosanthes celebioa Cope. | iv a
[Trichosanthes waltichiana (Ser. Wight | f+ | |
| Trichosanthes wawraci Cogn. tad 1 i
Checklist of vascular plants 179
CYPERACEAE
Actinoscirpus grossus (L.f.) Goetghebeur & D.A. Simpson
Carex cryptostachys Brongn.
Cyperus digitatus Roxb.
Cyperus distans Lf.
Cyperus haspan L.
Cyperus laxus Lam.
Diplacrum caricinum R. Br.
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.) Hensch.
Eleocharis ochrostachys Steud.
Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl
Fimbrisiylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl
Fimbristylis dura (Zoll. & Moritzi) Merr.
Fimbristylis obtusata (C.B. Clarke) Ridl.
Fimbristylis pauciflora R. Br.
Fimbristylis umbellaris (Lam.) Vahl
Fuirena umbellata Rottb.
Gahnia tristis Nees
Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng.
Kyllinga brevifolius Rottb.
[Lipocarpha microcephala(R.Br.)Kunth | | ||
| Mapania bancana (Mig.) Benth. & Hook. ex BD. Jacks. | + | |N|
[/Mapania cuspidaa (Mig) Uitien +L + ||
Mapania enodis (Mig.) C.B. Clarke reer Sess ee ae
Mapania kurzii C.B. Clarke
Mapania palustris (Hassk. ex Steud.) Fern.-Vill.
+.
Mapania squamata (Kurz) C.B. Clarke
Mapania wallichii C.B. Clarke
Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britt.
Rhynchospora rubra (Lour.) Makino
Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla
Scleria biflora Roxb.
Scleria ciliaris Nees
Scleria corymbosa Roxb.
Scleria levis Retz.
Scleria purpurascens Steud.
180
Lindsaea divergens Hook. & Grev.
Lindsaea doryophora K.U. Kramer
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
wa) Pe)
yy
fess
hon
ll
sia
mer
eisva
oe
i
nly
che a
ot
es a
cane
DHS ell
en
LaLa aaa aaa
en
—— ee
| Checklist of vascular plants 181
CE)
Dioscorea polyclades Hook.f. are bene
ORE aa ES Ee
Prempro ey
palin
SS errr
[DIPTEROCARPACEAR |
we
:
[Dipterocarpus caudatusFoxw. |
eS
=
LS a a Ee a) Ee
[open mengaramin Mig. Cw
ow a re Ee ee eS
EE SS ee a
ES DOTS a Ed
oie Co
Shorea gibbosa Brandis
Shorea gratissima (Wall. ex Kurz) Dyer
Shorea leprosula Miq.
Shorea macroptera Dyer
Shorea ochrophloia Strugnell ex Symington
Shorea ovalis (Korth.) Blume
Shorea parvifolia Dyer
Shorea pauciflora King
Shorea platycarpa F. Heim
Vatica maingayi Dyer
Vatica nitens King
Vatica pauciflora (Korth.) Blume
Vatica ridleyana Brandis
Vatica stapfiana (King) Slooten
Zito Za O m be tz
182 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
[Dracaena cantleyiBaker |
[Dracaena granulata Hook |
[Dracaena porteriBaker |
[Dracaena umbratica Rid
Fe AE PUR EA
Pleocnemia olivacea (Copel.) Holttum -
Tectaria singaporeana (Hook. & Grev.) Copel ~
EBENACEAE
aa
oa
_
Diospyros argentea Griff.
Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern »
Diospyros clavigera C.B. Clarke
Diospyros confusa Bakh. .
Diospyros coriacea Hiern
Diospyros diepenhorstii Mig
fe)
Z
=
.
.
.
.
Diospyros styraciformis King & Gamble | +
Rn uk i. tulad" a
Elacocarpus ferrugineus (Jack) Steud. | +
?
+
+
Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume
Elaeocarpus griffithii (Wight) A. Gray
Elaeocarpus mastersii King
aut oo) oR Z|zZ
--
Checklist of vascular plants 183
Elaeocarpus nitidus Jack
ERICACEAE
Rhododendron longiflorum Lindl
ERIOCAULACEAE
Eriocaulon truncatum Buch.-Ham. ex Mart.
Eriocaulon willdenovianum Moldenke
ESCALLONIACEAE
+
+
~
Polyosma kingiana Schltr +
EUPHORBIACEAE
Actephila excelsa (Dalzell) Mill. Arg
A) ke 2 eg he 2)
Antidesma coriaceum Tul.
Antidesma cuspidatum Mill. Arg
Antidesma neurocarpum Miq
[AporusanervosaHookf§ |
[Aporusa penangensis (Ridl.) Airy Shaw | +
[Aporusa prainiana King ex Gage +
fod oR
--
oe
Agrostistachys longifolia (Wight) Benth
Alchornea villosa (Benth.) Mill. Arg
a
o-
+
—
+
+
184 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Baccaurea brevipesHookf. | 4
+
oa
+
Baccaurea hookeri Gage +
Baccaurea kunstleri King ex Gage + +
+
+
+
Baccaurea minor Hook.f.
fo)
a
=
Baccaurea reticulata Hook.f.
W
NS ae
Breynia discigera Mill. Arg
Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw.) Mill. Arg
Breynia reclinata (Roxb.) Hook.f.
Baccaurea macrophylla (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg.
Baccaurea maingayi Hook.f.
Blumeodendron tokbrai (Blume) J.J. Sm.
Breynia coronata Hook.f |
os
Bridelia tomentosa Blume
Cheilosa montana Blume ~
Claoxylon indicum (Reinw. ex Blume) Endl. ex Hassk. -
Claoxylon longifolium (Blume) Endl. ex Hassk.
Cleistanthus hirsutulus Hook.f
Baccaurea lanceolata (Mig.) Mill. Arg
Baccaurea motleyana (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg
Baccaurea parviflora (Miill. Arg.) Miill. Arg
-)
Baccaurea sumatrana Mill. Arg.
Cleistanthus macrophyllus Hook.f.
Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.) Miill. Arg.
Croton laevifolius Blume
[Drypetes pendulaRid.
oe
:
a
Checklist of vascular plants 185
Elateriospermum tapos Blume
Endospermum diadenum (Miq.) Airy Shaw
Glochidion arborescens Blume
Glochidion borneense (Mill. Arg.) Boerl.
Glochidion brunneum Hook.f.
Glochidion hypoleucum (Migq.) Boerl.
Glochidion littorale Blume
Glochidion rubrum Blume
Glochidion sericeum Hook.f.
Glochidion singaporense Gage
Glochidion superbum Baill.
Koilodepas longifolium Hook.f.
Macaranga conifera (Zoll.) Mill. Arg.
Macaranga gigantea (Rchb.f. & Zoll.) Mill. Arg.
Macaranga heynei 1.M. Johnst.
Macaranga hullettii King ex Hook.f.
Macaranga hypoleuca (Rchb.f. & Zoll.) Mull. Arg. + N
[/Macaranga lowii King exHookf, t+ LTT
[Macaranga motleyana (Mill. Arg.) Mill. Arg, |_| # [Nf
[Macaranga puncticulaa Gage # | INT
OS CE a Se oe
| Macaranga trichocarpa (Rehb-f. & Zoll) Mill. Arg. |_| + [CN |
Macaranga triloba (Blume) Mill. Arg. aa VES ee ee
[Mallotus macrostachyus (Mig) Mill. Are | # |
Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) Miill. Arg.
arle i o 2 fe)
2/2 |= 2\=
= =
+
+
+ [+
+
+
Mallotus penangensis Mill. Arg.
Neoscortechinia kingii (Hook.f.) Pax & K. Hoffm.
Paracroton pendulus (Hassk.) Mig.
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Phyllanthus urinaria L.
Pimelodendron griffithianum (Mill. Arg.) Benth.
Ptychopyxis caput-medusae (Hook.f.) Ridl.
Ptychopyxis costata Miq.
Sapium discolor (Champ. ex Benth.) Miill. Arg.
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.
=
Trigonopleura malayana Hook.f.
186 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Trigonostemon longifolius Baill.
Trigonostemon malaccanus Mill. Arg.
Trigonostemon villosus Hook.f.
FAGACEAE
Castanopsis inermis (Lindl. ex Wall.) Benth. & Hook.f.
Castanopsis lucida (Nees) Soepadmo
Castanopsis malaccensis Gamble
Castanopsis megacarpa Gamble
Castanopsis nephelioides King ex Hook.f.
Castanopsis schefferana Hance
Castanopsis wallichii King ex Hook.f.
Lithocarpus bennettii (Miq.) Rehder
Lithocarpus cantleyanus (King ex Hook.f.) Rehder
Lithocarpus conocarpus (Oudem.) Rehder
Lithocarpus elegans (Blume) Hatus. ex Soepadmo
Lithocarpus encleisacarpus (Korth.) A. Camus
Lithocarpus ewyckii (Korth.) Rehder
Lithocarpus hystrix (Korth.) Rehder
Lithocarpus lucidus (Roxb.) Rehder -
[Lithocarpus sundaicus (Blume) Render | + f+ | |
Lithocarpus wallichianus (Lindl. ex Hance) Render | | + ||
\Ohierous argentata Korte, | 1)
PO Oe
PELACOURTIACKAR | 0) |).
[Casearia capiteliaa Bund YE ee
{Cosearia clarkei King |) vi)
Osmelia philippina (Turcz.) Benth
+
+ [+
+
of
+
N
Flagellaria indica L. + N
Checklist of vascular plants 187
Aeschynanthus albidus (Blume) Steud.
:
Aeschynanthus parvifolius R. Br.
;
ul 5
— i)
Aeschynanthus radicans Jack
Aeschynanthus wallichii R. Br.
Cyrtandra pendula Blume
Didymocarpus platypus C.B. Clarke
Dicranopteris curranii Copel.
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw.
rie
a
Sticherus truncatus (Willd.) Nakai
qe
a a a
Z = es!
> 2 =
S = z
: 2 Z
= > 2
o >
> ie)
les)
Gnetum gnemon L.
.
Gnetum gnemonoides Brongn.
[rain macrotuchiyom Hook fT Pe
[Gnetum microcarpumBume tH fC
2s SE A TT SS
eS SA EC
[Bambusa vulgaris Schrad.ex Wendl | | TTT
iCanisitiead tapparem (Dew! ee
[Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz)Trin, | | Td
Coix lacryma-jobi L. +
[Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin) Stapt | HT
Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Steud) Stapf
+
+
A
a
Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.
Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud.
Eragrostis cumingii Steud.
Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.
Gigantochloa ligulata Gamble
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv.
Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze
Isachne pulchella Roth ex Roem. & Schult.
Ischaemum ciliare Retz.
+
Ischaemum timorense Kunth
188 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Paspalum scrobiculatum L.
Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb. ex Murr.) Kunth
Schizostachyum gracile (Munro) Holttum
Soejatmia ridleyi (Gamble) K.M. Wong
[GUTTERAE 0 |b (a ad
[Calophytiam calaba Le | | a
[Calophyttum costulatum MR. Hend.& Wyattsm | | |
|Calophyltum dispar PR.Stevens t+ LT
[Calophyttum ferruginewm Ril. f+ CNW
[Calophyllum lanigeumMig, LH TL
[Calophyllum macrocarpumHookf_ t+ | |
[Calophyllum pulcherrimum Wall. ex Choisy | + | few |
[Calophytium rigitum Mig 3
| Calophyllum rubiginosum MR. Hend. & WyattSm | + | [NW |
|Calophyllum rufigemmatum M.R. Hend. & Wyatt-Sm | + | | 2
Calophyllum soulattri Burm.f.
Calophyllum sundaicum P.F. Stevens
Calophyllum tetrapterum Miq.
Calophyllum teysmannii Mig.
Calophyllum wallichianum Planch. & Triana
Cratoxylum arborescens (Vahl) Blume
Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Blume
Cratoxylum formosum (Jack) Dyer
Cratoxylum maingayi Dyer
Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex T. Anderson
Garcinia eugeniifolia Wall. ex T. Anderson
Garcinia forbesii King
Garcinia griffithii T. Anderson
Garcinia hombroniana Pierre
Garcinia maingayi Hook.f.
oR ate ie eh al valet ee a ey I
Checklist of vascular plants 189
Q
=)
S
=.
=
=
=
d
~
e
=)
~
i=)
=
de
a2
Garcinia nigrolineata Planch. ex T. Anderson aaa
25
==
>
Zz
op)
e
>
Z
>
o)
go)
‘a
eo)
Garcinia scortechinii King
Garcinia urophylla Scort. ex King
Ploiarium alternifolium (Vahl) Melchior
[Cephalomanes javanicum (Blume) Bosch | + | |
[Cephalomanes obscurum (Blume) Kwatsuki_ | + | | |
|Crepidomanes chrisii (Copel) Copel t+ | |
[Hymenophyltum denticulatum Sw. ||
Trichomanes motleyi (Bosch) Bosch He ORAM aga N
Molineria latifolia (Dryand.) Herb. ex Kurz
Gomphandra quadrifida (Blume) Sleumer
Gonocaryum gracile Mig.
— —
Ss OQ
> >
= lo
Q aa
> Z
+1 (8 (6
Shs ke |e
= ms
|
(e)
bi
Blume
—~
S
Qu
fas)
io
S
<=
Q
=
mA
Phytocrene bracteata Wall.
Platea latifolia Blume
Stemonurus malaccensis (Mast.) Sleumer
—
ie)
Qu
&
mA
=
s
~~
=
=.
=
ES
A
cn
=)
ga
Stemonurus scorpioides Becc.
190 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Species
IRVINGIACEAE
Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex Benn.
IXONANTHACEAE
Ixonanthes icosandra Jack
Ixonanthes reticulata Jack
LAURACEAE
Actinodaphne glomerata (Blume) Nees
Actinodaphne macrophylla (Blume) Nees
Actinodaphne malaccensis Hook.f.
Actinodaphne pruinosa Nees
Alseodaphne bancana Miq.
Alseodaphne intermedia Kosterm.
[Alseodaphne oblanceolata (Mert) Kosterm. || + ||
[Beilschmiedia kunstleriGamble —f# | IN 2
Beilschmiedia madang Bue f# LL
Cassytha fliformiss hii, a CW, TG Ea
[Ginnamomum inersReinw. |e a
[Cinnamomum javanicum Bue fH |
| Ginnamomum sintoe Blume) 0) oie) Ll ie Oe
[Cryptoearya,ferrea Binnie)
| Cryptoearya griffithiana Wight: |i i os i a
| Gryptocarya impressa Mid. | ii pl
| Cryptocarya kuraii Hooks.) if ie
)
<|Z Q/0 fo
Base ie :
+ |+ |+ [+
+-
a
Cryptocarya rugulosa Hook.f. W
Dehaasia incrassata (Jack) Kosterm.
Lindera lucida (Blume) Boerl.
Litsea accedens (Blume) Boerl.
Litsea castanea Hook.f.
Litsea cordata (Jack) Hook.f.
Litsea costalis (Nees) Kosterm.
Litsea costata (Blume) Boerl.
Litsea elliptica Blume
Litsea erectinervia Kosterm.
Litsea ferruginea (Blume) Blume
Checklist of vascular plants 191
Litsea maingayi Hook.f.
Litsea ridleyi Gamble
Phoebe grandis (Nees) Merr.
Ue a ae
ES eS A a
[Barringtonia racemosa(L) Spreng. | tT
1 ES a AR EN ES
EE ee PEE CE CE
Se
Se) Ee eae Ae Pee
Leea rubra Blume ex Spreng. VNR Lab Ni eiarearc baw. |
a ehily staeliyaten|
LEGUMINOSAE
Acacia kekapur I.C. Nielsen
Adenanthera malayana Kosterm.
Aganope thyrsiflora (Benth.) Polhill
Albizia splendens Miq.
Archidendron bubalinum (Jack) I.C. Nielsen
Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen
Archidendron contortum (Mart.) I.C. Nielsen
Archidendron ellipticum (Blume) I.C. Nielsen
Archidendron globosum (Blume) I.C. Nielsen
Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I.C. Nielsen
Archidendron microcarpum (Benth.) I.C. Nielsen
Bauhinia semibifida Roxb.
Caesalpinia sumatrana Roxb.
Callerya eriantha (Benth.) Schot
192 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Crotalaria retusa L.
Dalbergia hullettii Prain
Dalbergia junghuhnii Benth.
Dalbergia pseudosissoo Miq.
Dalbergia velutina Benth.
Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC.
Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC.
Entada spiralis Ridl.
Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex Benth.
Kunstleria ridleyi Prain
| Ormosia bancana (Mig) Mere |
|Ormosia macrodivea Baker) |
[Ormosia sumatrana (Mig) Prain | tt TT
| Parkia speciosa Haske
LEN
oS S S
S Ss" ss =.
= |= i >
SS a g
=| S og.
SIS = 5
ais S 5
Bs 5 =
8
Sis e =
= = PS
> a -
ies) oO
fav) »
~~ Se
a
—
yaAleveme Ob
Z =
+
Spatholobus ferrugineus (Zoll. & Moritzi) Benth
Spatholobus maingayi Prain ex King
Z |e
a indica L.
ra wallichii Grah. ex
Spatholobus ridleyi Prain ex King
TIBULARIACEAE
Utricularia bifida L.
ey
Utricularia caerulea L
Utricularia gibba L
LINACEAE
Indorouchera griffithiana (Planch.) Hallier f.
LOGANIACEAE
+
a
oe
—_
ok
a
--
--
- -
Checklist of vascular plants 193
Fagraea auriculata Jack
Fagraea fragrans Roxb
Fagraea racemosa Jack ex Wall
&
Fi im
Strychnos axillaris Colebr
Strychnos ignatii Berg
LOMARIOPSIDACEAE
B iS
B
D n
J
(
agraea acuminatissima Merr.
agraea ridleyi King & Gamble
trychnos maingayi C.B. Clarke
olbitis appendiculata (Willd.) K. Iwatsuki
Bolbitis heteroclita (C. Presl) Ching
olbitis singaporensis Holttum
olbitis sinuata (C. Presl) Hennipman
Teratophyllum aculeatum (Blume) Mett. ex Kuhn
ne)
endrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.
Elytranthe albida (
ana ( .) Mig.
currula ferruginea (Jack) Danser
a (L.)
j (ke) Pic,
Teratophyllum ludens (Fée) Holttum
Teratophyllum rotundifoliatum (R. Bonap.) Holttum
LORANTHACEAE
Amylotheca duthieana (King) Danser
Barathranthus axanthus (Korth.) Mig
Blume) Blume
Elytranthe arnottiana (Korth.) Mig
Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) Tiegh
Cee ee
a I +
a
r =
ry
ap
SI I
SI P
h
h
f (
~
—-
+
--
+
—
os
-
ae
~
+
+ + NT
194 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
MALPIGHIACEAE
Aspidopterys concava (Wall.) A. Juss
Hiptage sericea Hook.f.
MALVACEAE
Sida rhombifolia L
Urena lobata L
MARANTACEAE
a:
, Se
| ee
ae
2 a
, | ar
ati
Mars:
ea
|
te
2 <n
ei
| ais
[Phrynium villosulum Mig |
Cio ie id RY
ARATE 0 eee
[Angiopteris evecta (G.Forst) Hoffm |
pea ti
he td
Sn
f seve
ee
iii
RE
et
peti
pra
ee
er!
r
Z Zz Q
Donax grandis (Mig.) K. Schum
MELASTOMATACEAE
Diplectria viminalis (Jack) Kuntze
Lijndenia laurina Zoll. & Moritzi
Macrolenes echinulata (Naudin) Bakh,f.
Medinilla crassifolia (Reinw. ex Blume) Blume
re jk NM | hM oe) _ — |
ain
Melastoma malabathricum L
Memecylon amplexicaule Roxb
Memecylon caeruleum Jack
Memecylon campanulatum C.B. Clarke
Memecylon edule Roxb
Memecylon excelsum Blume
a
—
~
oo
~
aa
~
=
—
-
a
=
—
=
a
Checklist of vascular plants 195
Memecylon floridum Ridl.
Memecylon garcinioides Blume
Memecylon globosum Bakh-f.
Memecylon lilacinum Zoll. & Moritzi
Memecylon megacarpum Furtado
Memecylon minutiflorum Miq. |
Memecylon oleifolium Blume
Memecylon paniculatum Jack
Memecylon pubescens (C.B. Clarke) King
Pachycentria constricta (Blume) Blume
Pachycentria maingayi (C.B. Clarke) J.F. Maxwell
Pogonanthera pulverulenta (Jack) Blume
Pternandra coerulescens Jack
Pternandra echinata Jack
Pternandra tuberculata (Korth.) M.P. Nayar
Sonerila heterostemon Naudin
Sonerila moluccana Roxb.
MELIACEAE
Aglaia cucullata (Roxb.) Pellegr.
Aglaia exstipulata (Griff.) W. Theob.
Aglaia leptantha Mig.
Aglaia leucophylla King
Aglaia macrocarpa (Mig.) Pannell
Aglaia maingayi (Hiern) King
Aglaia malaccensis (Ridl.) Pannell
Aglaia odoratissima Blume
Aglaia oligophylla Miq.
Aglaia rubiginosa (Hiern) Pannell
fb
a4
Aglaia rufinervis (Blume) Bentv.
Aglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms
Aglaia spectabilis (Miq.) S.S. Jain & Bennet
Aglaia tomentosa Teijsm. & Binn.
Z =
Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R. Parker
Chisocheton erythrocarpus Hiern
al
Chisocheton patens Blume
196 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Chisocheton pentandrus (Blanco) Merr.
Chisocheton sarawakanus (C. DC.) Harms.
Dysoxylum acutangulum Miq.
Dysoxylum alliaceum (Blume) Blume
Dysoxylum carolinae Mabb.
Dysoxylum cauliflorum Hiern
Dysoxylum cyrtobotryum Miq.
Dysoxylum densiflorum (Blume) Mig.
Dysoxylum excelsum Blume
Pseudoclausena chrysogyne (Miq.) T.P. Clark
Sandoricum beccarianum Baill.
DH wn
S S z
= > oO
= S Cc.
= S 3
a) =
S =
> 2
S =
S oS
— nA
5 :
® S
B a
= oe
5 is
=| 5
S
we”
(q@)
am |
4
=
gs
=
=)
7
=
>
e
eo)
>
eo)
[Meliosma lanceolata Blume | + ills a
|Meliosma pinnata Roxb.) Maxim | | WT
[Meliosma simplicifolia Roxb.) Walp. f+ |
pov sewed dE
[MENISPERMACEAE yoy) | ah
| Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. | dt |
-
Cyclea laxiflora Miers
Fibraurea tinctoria Lour.
ny
>
S
<3
S
a)
=
=)
=
OQ
iS
an
ie)
(Ss)
<a
=
ep
on
>
(e)
s}
N
(oe)
=)
Limacia scandens Lour.
Stephania capitata (Blume) Spreng.
Tinomiscium petiolare Hook.f. & Thomson
Tinospora macrocarpa Diels
Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze
MONIMIACEAE
Kibara coriacea (Blume) Tul.
Matthaea sancta Blume
=
—
Zz
me
>
Z
—
=
>
OQ
eo)
>
eo)
Checklist of vascular plants 197
MORACEAE
Artocarpus anisophyllus Miq.
Artocarpus dadah Miq.
Artocarpus elasticus Reinw. ex Blume
Artocarpus fulvicortex F.M. Jarrett
Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. ex Trécul.
Artocarpus hispidus Jarrett
Artocarpus kemando Migq.
Artocarpus lanceifolius Roxb.
Artocarpus lowii King
Artocarpus maingayi King
Artocarpus nitidus Trécul.
Artocarpus rigidus Blume
Artocarpus scortechinii King
Ficus annulata Blume
Ficus apiocarpa Miq.
Ficus aurantiacea Griff.
Ficus aurata Miq.
Ficus binnendykii Mig.
Ficus bracteata Wall. ex Mig.
Ficus caulocarpa Miq.
Ficus chartacea Wall. ex King
Ficus consociata Blume
Ficus delosyce Corner
Ficus deltoidea Jack
Ficus dubia Wall. ex King
Ficus excavata King
Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Blume
Ficus glandulifera (Wall. ex Miq.) King
Ficus globosa Blume
Zz, eh ee Zi Z|Z LZ Z's Z oe
Ficus grossularioides Burm.f.
Ficus heteropleura Blume
Ficus kerkhovenii Valeton
Ficus laevis Blume
Ficus lamponga Miq.
Ficus microcarpa Lf. M2
198 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Ficus scortechinii King
--
—
a
-
=
_
-
_
N
Ficus sundaica Blume
Ficus sumatrana Mig
Ficus sinuata Thunb
Ficus subgelderi Corner
Ficus superba Mig
Ficus trichocarpa Blume
Ficus variegata Blume Pa
Ficus vasculosa Wall. ex Miq. aay ~
,
=
~
—
N
a
N
Ficus villosa Blume
Ficus virens Aiton
Ficus xylophylla Wall. ex Mig. N
Parartocarpus bracteatus (King) Becc.
Streblus elongatus (Miq.) Corner |
MYRICACEAE
Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.
MYRISTICACEAE
Endocomia canarioides (King) W.J. de Wilde
Gymnacranthera bancana (Miq.) J. Sinclair
Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.
Horsfieldia crassifolia (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb
Horsfieldia grandis (Hook.f.) Warb
Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb.
jana (
Gymnacranthera forbesii (King) Warb
Horsfieldia brachiata (King) Warb
+
—
zZ\z\s\s a2 9
=
5
_ Checklist of vascular plants 199
Horsfieldia polyspherula (Hook.f. emend King) J. Sinclair
Horsfieldia punctatifolia J. Sinclair
Horsfieldia sucosa (King) Warb.
Horsfieldia superba (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.
Horsfieldia wallichii (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.
Knema communis J. Sinclair
Knema conferta (King) Warb.
Knema curtisii (King) Warb.
Knema furfuracea (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.
Knema glaucescens Jack
Knema hookeriana (Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb.
Knema intermedia (Blume) Warb.
=
= Zz, |Z aes Z
=
CNW
Knema latericia Elmer
Knema laurina (Blume) Warb.
Knema malayana Watb. + N
Knema patentinervia (J. Sinclair) W.J. de Wilde ee Waa
Myristica cinnamomea King
Myristica crassa King Cece SIE ES a
(OOS SEE ES eel Se Ee Ee
OS ee Se Ee ee
Myristica maing@iMookf | Pee
ES SS Tae
ES ES ORES eee ee a ee
CE SEE EN RG ea ied EES ETE SO
OE ae ea I
EOE a a
CE a a
Ashe
a
Ardisia singaporensis Rid. a
Ardisia teysmanniana Scheff. Cay ERS
el
pee
4
Ardisia tuberculata Wall. ex A. DC.
200 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Embelia dasythyrsa Miq.
Embelia ribes Burm.
Grenacheria lampani (Scheff.) Mez
Labisia pumila (Blume) Fern.-Vill
Maesa ramentacea Wall. ex Roxb.
MYRTACEAE
Acmena acuminatissima (Blume) Merr. & L.M. Perry
+
Decaspermum parviflorum (Lam.) A.J. Scott
Eugenia sp.8
Eugenia sp.39
Melaleuca cajuputi Powell
Rhodamnia cinerea Jack
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) Hassk.
Syzygium attenuatum (Migq.) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium borneense (Miq.) Miq.
Syzygium cerinum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner
Syzygium chloranthum (Duthie) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium cinereum (Kurz) P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.
Syzygium claviflorum (Roxb.) Wall. ex A.M. Cowan & Cowan
Syzygium duthieanum (King) Masam.
Syzygium filiforme (Wall. ex Duthie) P. Chantaranothai &
Syzygium flosculiferum (M.R. Hend.) Sreek.
Syzygium glaucum (King) P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.
+
Q iz OQ
—-
< < <|z/z 2 = Zilal la
Syzygium gracile (Korth.) Amsh.
Syzygium grande (Wight) Walp.
Syzygium griffithii (Duthie) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium inophyllum DC.
Syzygium kunstleri (King) Bahadur & R.C. Gaur
Syzygium leptostemon (Korth.) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium leucoxylum Korth.
Syzygium lineatum (DC.) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium linoceroides (King) I.M. Turner
Syzygium maingayi P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.
Syzygium muelleri (Miq.) Miq.
E
Syzygium nemestrinum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner
Checklist of vascular plants 201
+
Syzygium ngadimanianum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner
Syzygium nigricans (King) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium oblatum (Roxb.) Wall. ex A.M. Cowan & Cowan
Syzygium pachyphyllum (Kurz) Merr. & L.M. Perry ~
Syzygium palembanicum Miq.
Syzygium papillosum (Duthie) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium pauper (Ridl.) ILM. Turner
Syzygium pendens (Duthie) I.M. Turner
Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp.
Syzygium pseudocrenulatum (M.R. Hend.) I.M. Turner
Syzygium pseudoformosum (King)
<=
g
7.
&
2
~
an
i@)
~
—<
Syzygium pustulatum (Duthie) Merr. +
[Syzygium pyenanthum Mert. &LM.Perry | t+ |
[Syzygium pyrifolium (BlumeyDC_ t+ t+ IN|
Syzygium ridleyi (King) P.Chantaranothai &J.Pam [+ | + | |
Syzygium rugosum Korth.
+ [+
Sa
a
Syzygium scortechinii (King) P. Chantaranothai & J. Parn.
Syzygium singaporense (King) Airy Shaw
Syzygium skiophilum (Duthie) Airy Shaw
Syzygium subdecussatum (Wall. ex Duthie) ILM. Turner | +
Syzygium syzygioides (Miq.) Merr. & L.M. Perry
Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC.
Tristaniopsis merguensis (Griff.) Peter G. Wilson & J.T. Water | +
Tristaniopsis whiteana (Griff.) Peter G. Wilson & J.T. Water
HYDROCHARITACEAE
Najas indica (Willd.) Cham.
Najas malesiana W.J. de Wilde
NEPENTHACEAE
Nepenthes ampullaria Jack
Nepenthes gracilis Korth.
Nepenthes hookerana Lindl.
Nepenthes rafflesiana Jack
Nepenthes trichocarpa Miq.
202 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Brackenridgea palustris Bartell.
wlo w |Z w |Z |e
Si] |siS| is /siz
— = —e
S|Z2/} (2 15 s |=/s
= |} S |= =. |2
ss I-Co
oe | ts = 5 a |5
Sje| [Rie] 1S
ee a =e
> = ( B10
Ss |e ee
is 6 |= ea)
™~. ~
= s
oy
=)
Q
a
>
@
=
jee)
I
Campylospermum serratum (Gaertn.) Bittrich & M.C.E. Amaral} +
Euthemis leucocarpa Jack
Anacolosa frutescens (Blume) Blume
=
—
>
e
od
eo
le
>
ie)
Erythropalum scandens Blume
[Ochanostachys amentaceaMas. | ++ Cw
|Scorodocarpus borneensis (Baill) Bec. | +L + WT
Strombosia ceylanica Gardn. hia canil
[Strombosia javanica Bime |) / 1 |) | Oise Thee ea
pe OT ne lal iil
jorracran Po) a
|Chionanthus ramifiorusRoxe, |
[Jasminum elongatum (Bergius) Willd. |e
Po Nee taal leh ei aiid ea
OLEANDRACEAE a
Nephrolepis acutifolia (Desv.) H. Christ.
a
oo
ao
fe
oe
a
4
=
Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen
Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H. Hara
Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H. Raven
Ludwigia prostrata Roxb.
=
2
>
Pp)
~
>
OQ
a
>
eo
OPILIACEAE
Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr.
+ + 3
Checklist of vascular plants 203
Lepionurus sylvestris Blume
cae
rage
ita a
S95 ee
idee |
aniadieniit |
imme |
ne |
Ose Eg a A
oe a i aa aE
itm tl
| Sh
Sn sD
anergy a
nem, | |.
| on ae yc
ho
ie | (fs
ene ra
a
ees
gree
eo
oy
oat
soe
ray
a
es
Bae
FNM
fate
pine
Ee
sar
ane
204 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Species
Dendrobium pulchellum Roxb. ex Lindl.
Dendrobium setifolium Ridl.
Dendrobium subulatum (Blume) Lindl.
Didymoplexis pallens Gnift.
Dilochia wallichii Lindl.
Dipodium scandens (Blume) J.J. Sm.
Eria pulchella Lindl.
Eulophia graminea Lindl.
Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh
Flickingeria fimbriata (Blume) A.D. Hawkes
Galeola nudifolia Lour.
Gastrodia javanica (Blume) Lindl.
Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume
Hetaeria nitida Ridl.
Hetaeria obliqua Blume
Hylophila mollis Lindl.
Lecanorchis malaccensis Ridl.
Liparis ferruginea Lindl.
PTL
ae
UPL
PUPELPFEE PEE PPP E TTF
Liparis tricallosa Rchb.f.
[Liparis weayi Hook «| i | ill) | ee
|MolavistatioliaSm. | eats pa a
[Malaxis micrantha (Hook.f) Kune | tT
Microsaccus javensis Blume
[Nephelaphyllum pulchrumBlume t+ + |
[Nervilia punctata (Blume) Makino | THN
LNewwiedia griffuhiv Remy: | alin pail en
|Newwiedia veratrifolia Binme || ee fg
Oberonia ciliolata Hook.f.
Oberonia dissitiflora Ridl.
Oberonia stenophylla Rid.
gaat.
oo
Peristylus candidus J.J. Sm.
Peristylus lacertiferus (Lindl.) J.J. Sm.
Phaius tankervilleae (Banks ex L’Heritier) Blume
Plocoglottis gigantea (Hook.f.) J.J. Sm.
Plocoglottis javanica Blume
Plocoglottis lowti Rchb.f.
Checklist of vascular plants 205
Podochilus microphyllus Lindl.
Pomatocalpa latifolium (Lindl.) J.J. Sm.
Pteroceras pallidum (Blume) Holttum
Spathoglottis plicata Blume
Stereosandra javanica Blume
Taeniophyllum filiforme J.J. Sm.
Taeniophyllum obtusum Blume
Thrixspermum amplexicaule (Blume) Rchb.f.
Thrixspermum calceolus (Lindl.) Rehb,f.
Thrixspermum ridleyanum Schltr.
Thrixspermum trichoglottis (Hook.f.) Kuntze
Trichotosia gracilis (Hook.f.) Kraenzl.
Trichotosia velutina (Lodd ex Lindl.) Kraenzl.
Tropidia curculigoides Lindl.
Vanilla griffithii Rchb.f.
Vrydagzynea albida (Blume) Blume
Vrydagzynea lancifolia Ridl.
Vrydagzynea tristriata Ridl.
Zeuxine clandestina Blume
OXALIDACEAE
Dapania racemosa Korth.
Sarcotheca griffithii (Planch. ex Hook.f.) Hallier f.
Sarcotheca laxa (Ridl.) Kunth
PALMAE
Calamus diepenhorstii Miq.
Calamus insignis Griff.
Calamus javensis Blume
Calamus laevigatus Matt.
Calamus lobbianus Becc.
+
Calamus ornatus Blume
Calamus oxleyanus Teijsm. & Binn.
Calamus paspalanthus Becc.
Calamus ridleyanus Becc.
Se
of
Caryota mitis Lour.
206 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Daemonorops angustifolia (Griff.) Mart.
Daemonorops didymophylla Becc.
Daemonorops geniculata (Griff.) Mart.
Daemonorops grandis (Griff.) Mart.
Daemonorops hystrix (Griff.) Mart.
Daemonorops kunstleri Becc.
Daemonorops leptopus (Griff.) Mart.
Daemonorops lewisiana (Griff.) Mart.
Daemonorops longipes (Griff.) Mart.
Daemonorops micracantha (Griff.) Becc.
Daemonorops periacantha Miq.
Daemonorops sabut Becc.
Eleiodoxa conferta (Griff.) Burret
Iguanura wallichiana (Wall. ex Mart.) Hook.f.
Korthalsia echinometra Becc. +. +
Korthalsia flagellaris Miq. ay DY Fey es
Fame ees
|Korthalsia rigida Biome || | it
[Korihalsia rostrata Blume || hr
[Korthalsia scontechiniBege, |
LLicwalaferruginea Bec. |
[Myrialepis paradoxa (Kurz) .Dranst. |||
[Neng pumila (Mart). Wendl, 0) vil 15 lis ib 0) [a
[Oncosperma horridum Gritt) Scheff. | * | IN|
| Orania sylvicola (Grift)HB.Moore |e
pPinanga imosa ig 6 hy ee
Pinanga malaiana (Mart.) Scheff.
gdaaaa
+
Pinanga pectinata Becc.
Pinanga simplicifrons (Miq.) Becc.
Plectocomia elongata Mart. ex Blume
Rhopaloblaste singaporensis (Becc.) Hook.f.
Salacca affinis Griff.
PANDACEAE
Galearia fulva (Tul.) Miq.
Galearia maingayi Hook.f.
+
i a et at prey
Checklist of vascular plants 207
Microdesmis caseariifolia Planch.
PANDANACEAE
Pandanus atrocarpus Gritf.
=
Pandanus scortechinii Mart.
—
EY CSR Rees ae
ee 7 a ee eee
[Ceratopteristhalictroides (L.) Brongn, f+ | | |
LN ES TOS eee ae ae a a
eee | arano)via|
[Adenia macrophylla (Blume) Koord§ f+ t+ ITT
Oe EE ee ee a a
EE ee a DE
[Pentaphragma ellipticum Poulsen | t+ LT 3
JA Wal
PHORMIACEAE
Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC.
>)>|>/3/2]2/3 13/22/23 ]2
= = = = = SS ie ae a &
Q& [= Q Q i=) = Cn (iO) at
= = = = = = => = = = =
= Te eS tS TS SoS STS =
slefslslslzizis ls
= Ss s |S silo 1o 161s
S SiS {2 {sls Sis (e783
. | fa => a AN = =. | & a
N =} os > i a SS a =
Ais X = = “72 7S
<a me ie S ee) S = ito 5
3 215 18 19/9 wD ~ ||
a “ InlZlwlas =—|WiO}a|s
5 a es = |
— Oo = =. —
3 — ea = a) oO oe
”n : oO ca?) a)
5 =|
oO a)
PIPERACEAE
Piper caninum Blume
Piper flavimarginatum C. DC.
Piper macropiper Pennant
Piper maingayi Hook.f.
Piper muricatum Blume
—
Sh
Piper pachyphyllum Hook.f.
208 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Piper pedicellosum Wall.
Piper porphyrophyllum N.E. Br.
Piper sarmentosum Roxb.
MN
a=]
@
CO
Laie
ig")
DN
PODOCARPACEAE
Nageia wallichiana (Presl) Kuntze
Podocarpus polystachyus R. Br. ex Endl.
POLYGALACEAE
Salomonia cantoniensis Lour.
Xanthophyllum affine Korth. ex Miq.
Xanthophyllum amoenum Chodat
Xanthophyllum discolor Chodat
Xanthophyllum ellipticum Korth. ex Miq.
Xanthophyllum eurhynchum Miq.
Xanthophyllum griffithii Hook.f. ex A.W. Benn.
Xanthophyllum obscurum A.W. Benn.
Xanthophyllum stipitatum A.W. Benn.
Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Blume) Dietr.
S-)
©
S
me
2
=)
Z
>
°
eo
>
m
Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara
Ss")
=)
ee
me
~~
=)
=
>
ae
eo
>
eo
=
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.J. Sm.
Lecanopteris sinuosa (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel.
Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.
Phymatosorus nigrescens (Blume) Pic. Serm.
Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm.f.) Pic. Serm.
ay
=
a
Platycerium coronarium (D. Konig ex O.F. Mill) Desv.
+
Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price
PRA RRS REE
--
Checklist of vascular plants 209
PETS Sen ee
[Ventilago malaccensisRid. | tC
W 3
EE Ee a a EE
a. i ea a a a
ESE OS aa A a a
LS Se ee a a ee
Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. a Cor cite ae
[GynotrochesaxillarisBlume + | + [CNW
fete arian Kohls | hdd Wx yin) | NWee |
[Pellacalyx saccardianus Scot. +L + tCw
Prunus arborea (Blume) Kalkman
=
=
77)
>
ez
=
>
e3)
Prunus grisea (Blume) Kalkman
Prunus polystachya (Hook.f.) Kalkman
RUBIACEAE
Aidia densiflora (Wall.) Masam.
Borreria laevicaulis (Miq.) Rid].
Dy
=
S
=
~
3
S
oat
5
y
Q
=
=
ow
to
+
Canthium confertum Korth.
210 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Ce ee
Hedyotis hippies (Willd. ex Spreng.) Merr. ex C.B. Rob.
Checklist of vascular plants pA |
Lasianthus cyanocarpus Jack
Lasianthus densifolius Migq.
Lasianthus ellipticus Wight
Lasianthus griffithii Wight
Lasianthus maingayi Hook.f.
Lasianthus perakensis King & Gamble
Lasianthus ridleyi King & Gamble
Lasianthus scabridus King & Gamble
Lasianthus stipularis Blume
Lasianthus tomentosus Blume
Lucinaea membranacea King
Morinda ridleyi (King & Gamble) Ridl.
Morinda rigida Miq.
Morinda umbellata L.
Mussaenda glabra Vahl
Mussaenda mutabilis Hook.f.
Mussaendopsis beccariana Baill.
Mycetia malayana (Wall. ex Ridl.) Craib
Myrmecodia tuberosa Jack
Nauclea officinalis (Pierre ex Pit.) Merr. & Chun
Nauclea subdita (Korth.) Steud.
Ophiorrhiza singaporensis Ridl.
+ +
+
Oxyceros fragrantissima (Ridl.) K.M. Wong - T
[Onyceros longiflora(Lam.)T.Yama. | | |
| Oxyceros penangiana (King & Gamble) Tirveng. |_| |
[Oxyceros scandens (Blume) Tieng. | | | 28
Paederia foetida L. ~
Paederia verticillata Blume
Pavetta wallichiana Steud.
Pertusadina eurhyncha (Miq.) Ridsdale
Porterandia anisophylla (Jack ex Roxb.) Ridl.
Prismatomeris glabra (Korth.) Valeton -
Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) K. Schum.
Psychotria cantleyi Rid.
Psychotria griffithii Hook.f.
Psychotria helferiana Kurz
Hlol4lala
i)
—
ii)
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Species
Psychotria maingayi Hook.f.
Psychotria malayana Jack
Psychotria obovata Wall.
Psychotria ovoidea Wall.
Psychotria penangiana Hook.f.
Psychotria ridleyi King & Gamble
Psychotria rostrata Blume
Zz Z
es
Psychotria sarmentosa Blume
Psychotria singapurensis (Ridl.) I.M. Turner
Psydrax maingayi (Hook. f.) Bridson
Psydrax sp.10
Psydrax sp.11
Rothmannia macrophylla (R. Br. ex Hook.f.) Bremek. +
Saprosma glomerulata King & Gamble +
|Tarenna adpressa(King)Mer. | | IN
[Tarenna costita (Mig) Mer, 7a
Tarenna fragrans (Nees) Koord. & Valeton | | Tt
Tarenna mollis (Wall. ex Hook.f.) B.L. Rob. re rae
|Tarenna odoraia(Roxb)BL.Rob t+ ||
| arena stellata (Hook.f) Rid. |) eee
|Timonius flavescens (Jack) Baker | t+ LEN
Timonius wallichianus (Korth Valeton | + | + LNW
Uncaria acida (W. Hunt.) Roxb. re
Uncaria attenuata Korth.
— & a
i)
Uncaria callophylla Blume ex Korth.
Uncaria cordata (Lour.) Merr.
Uncaria lanosa Wall.
Uncaria longiflora (Poir.) Merr.
Uncaria roxburghiana Korth.
Urophyllum blumeanum (Wight) Hook.f.
Urophyllum glabrum Wall.
Urophyllum griffithianum (Wight) Hook.f.
Urophyllum hirsutum (Wight) Hook.f.
Urophyllum sp.2
Urophyllum streptopodium Wall. ex Hook.f.
Q Zz,
Checklist of vascular plants 213
RUTACEAE
Clausena excavata Burm.f.
Glycosmis chlorosperma Spreng.
Luvunga crassifolia Tanaka
Maclurodendron porteri (Hook.f.) T.G. Hartley
Melicope glabra (Blume) T.G. Hartley
Melicope hookeri T.G. Hartley
Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.G. Hartley
Paramignya scandens (Griff.) Craib
SANTALACEAE
Dendrotrophe varians (Blume) Miq.
Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabb.
SAPINDACEAE
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Guioa pleuropteris (Blume) Radlk.
Guioa pubescens (Zoll. & Moritzi) Radlk. +
Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenh. edie
Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh.
Mischocarpus pentapetalus (Roxb.) Radlk.
—
Nephelium cuspidatum Blume
Nephelium lappaceum L.
Nephelium laurinum Blume
Nephelium maingayi Hiern
Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh.
Pometia pinnata J.R. Forst.
Se
Trigonachras acuta (Hiern) Radlk.
Xerospermum laevigatum Radlk.
Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume
ob
SAPOTACEAE
Chrysophyllum roxburghii G. Don
Madhuca kingiana (Brace ex King & Gamble) H.J. Lam
Madhuca korthalsii (Pierre ex Burck) H.J. Lam
Madhuca malaccensis (C.B. Clarke) H.J. Lam
--
Q ‘2 Z, Z|4
214 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Madhuca motleyana (de Vriese) J.F. Macbr.
Madhuca sericea (Mig) HJ.Lam | +
Madhuca sericea (Miq.) H.J. Lam
Palaquium gutta (Hook.f.) Baill.
[Palaguium obovatum Gritt) Eng # L TWT
| Palaguium rostratum (Mig) Burk f# T+ IN|
Palaguium semaram HSLtam | >) SL)
Palaguium xanthochymum (de Vriese) Pierre er Burck | + [+ |N_ |
Payena lucida (G. Don) ADBd) oi A
Payena maingayi C.B. Clarke 4
4
of
a
aa
Payena obscura Burck W
| Pouteria maingayi (CB. Clarke) Baehni___ | + | + [CNW
| Pouteria malaccensis (CB.Clarke) Baemni_ | + f+ ||
[Pouteria obovata (R.Br) Basho | | a a
Sarcosperma paniculatum (King) Stapt &King | f+ ||
tae ill wii ss So NST
[SCHISANDRACKAR, (0/1) 0 Ws
-Radsira scandens Blume |) eel
Pe oN ee
SOHIZAFACKAR (jc) | OND
[Lygodium circinnatum (Burm) Sw. | | TR
[Lygodium longifotium (Willd) Sw. t+ f+ OTF |
Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.
+ [+ |+
+ [+ |+
of
+
Schizaea dichotoma (L.) Sw.
Schizaea digitata (L.) Sw.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Adenosma javanica (Blume) Koord.
ss age
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.
Limnophila laxa Benth.
Limnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Blume
Limnophila villosa Blume
Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell.
Lindernia elata (Benth.) Wettst.
Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze
i
Checklist of vascular plants 215
—
Selaginella intermedia (Blume) Spring
Turpinia sphaerocarpa Hassk.
wn wn KHlnlnlu|lw wn iH KHl|w
ca ut S/S /5 |= /z rl |Z S x |&
S [a > SIE(E/E/E| WIS|S] [8 a |S
g S [etc pest ej = =
Sie <| ISIS IF ISIS] [BF IS! [SlSlS/5
eM fc = Sis is 1s |e as ee ee =
e |S SB isi itiS| IS lel IS1F ele
= 1 > 2if |= 12 co |2o |e = Sle
a9 ) Si< |S |e iS. eS > =
5 = - ois j=/8 ls STS | ss S = |e
. S =
=. > 2 < S|S|> S) e peo
S ies i ea Ss fe pias =
eee 3 |: Q. | ae o |
s OTs it we o —
e = e © es
a < x
= es S
C = -)
6 nn
on
Ga
=
oO
<
”n
rS
Sk
j=)
ge
Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr.
Heritiera simplicifolia (Mast.) Kosterm.
Melochia corchorifolia L.
Pterocymbium tubulatum (Mast.) Pierre
me pee |
ee ee
~. ~~. ™.
we. [Peete tess
age
Solos
~~. fax) >
2/8 |
=| = is
™. sa)
i ollie
. un
es sen
= =
3 o
a —
vs —
9 A
a a
an) oO
3 s
5
Pterospermum javanicum Jungh.
Scaphium linearicarpum (Mast.) Pierre
Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumée ex Heyne
Sterculia coccinea Jack
Sterculia cordata Blume
Sterculia gilva Mig.
Sterculia macrophylla Vent.
Z|zZ Zz
Sterculia parviflora Roxb. + -
216 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Symplocos fasciculata Zoll. -
| Symplocos odoratssima (Blume) Choisy & Zo. |_| + | |
[Symplocos rubiginosa Wall. exDC. + T+! | |
Www et a
PTACCACEAR | 0g 0 an
| Facca integrifolia Ker Gawler
Boaik bot ies De
PUHEACEAR ) 40h.) Ooi astaia 7
[Adinandra acuminataKorth, | tL w
Adinandra dumosateck |
[Adinandra integerrimaT. Anderson exDyer__ |_| + | |
Bure acuminaDC ee
[Gordonia mulinervis King |e
|Gordonia penangensis Rid in te
[Gordonia singaporiana Wall. ex Rid f+ | CW
$12) | + Aaa
Pyrenaria acuminata Planch.
Ternstroemia bancana Mig.
Ternstroemia penangiana Choisy
of
+
THELYPTERIDACEAE
Christella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Jermy
Christella parasitica (L.) Lév.
Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H. It6
Mesophlebion chylamydophorum (Rosenst. ex C. Chr.) Holttum
Mesophlebion motleyanum (Hook.) Holttum
Pronephrium triphyllum (Sw.) Holttum
Sphaerostephanos heterocarpus (Blume) Holttum
Checklist of vascular plants 247
Aquilaria hirta Ridl.
Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.
+
Aquilaria microcarpa Baill.
Enkleia malaccensis Griff.
Gonystylus maingayi Hook.f.
Linostoma pauciflorum Griff.
Microcos latifolia Burret
Microcos globulifera (Mast.) Burret
Microcos hirsuta (Korth.) Burret
CNW
Trigoniastrum hypoleucum Miq.
Sciaphila maculata Miers
en: AZ Sic
Z Z
= =
Sciaphila tenella Blume
Gironniera hirta Ridl.
Gironniera nervosa Planch.
Gironniera parvifolia Planch.
Gironniera subaequalis Planch.
Trema cannabina Lour.
Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) Hara
UMBELLIFERAE
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
VERBENACEAE
Callicarpa longifolia Lam.
= = = ~~ qQ |= Gs =
= = ae |= S z
= = a S = fe Ss ss
> = S| {k S |e 3 =
= = Z| |3 ais = =
t ~A
> > > a = = >
ea] ) O = og | S Se
Se os S = S >
> > = 7 = e
a Sih ge e. : >
= > >
fe
C2)
=a
a)
=
=
+
218 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Species
Clerodendrum deflexum Wall.
Clerodendrum laevifolium Blume
Clerodendrum villosum Blume
Teijsmanniodendron coriaceum (C.B. Clarke) Kosterm.
Teijsmanniodendron holophyllum (Baker) Kosterm.
Vitex gamosepala Griff.
Vitex pinnata L.
Vitex vestita Wall. ex Schau.
VIOLACEAE
Rinorea anguifera (Lour.) Kuntze
PWISCACEAE 0 ee
Viscum articulate Burmf |e
[Viscum ovalifolium Wall exDC. + t+ |
UO
PWITACEAE. (0
[Ampelocissus cinnamomea (Wall) Planch. || |
[Ampelocissus elegans (Kurz) Gagnep. | + | + |
[Ampelocissus floccosa (Rid) Galt | t+ |
[Ampelocissus gracilis (Wall) Planch. f+ T+ ||
| utd na
Cayratia mollissima (Wall.) Gagnep. | +
Ce
UL LE
LEP
LPP LF
+ |+
+
+-
Cayratia novemfolia (Wall. ex Lawson) Burkill
Cissus hastata Mig.
Cissus nodosa Blume
Cissus repens Lam.
Cissus rostrata (Miq.) Planch.
Nothocissus spicifera (Griff.) Latiff
Pterisanthes eriopoda (Migq.) Planch.
Pterisanthes polita (Mig.) Lawson
Tetrastigma lawsoni (King) Burkill ex A.W. Hill
Tetrastigma leucostaphylum (Dennst.) Alston ex Mabb.
VITTARIACEAE
Vittaria elongata Sw.
Checklist of vascular plants 219
Vittaria ensiformis Sw
WOODSIAC
Diplazium crenatoserratum (Blume) T. Moore
XYRIDACEA
Xyris pauciflora Willd
ZINGIBERACEAE
[Zingiber griffthiBaker |
-
—
os
—
—
=
a
OO EAE
R E
. Konig)
. Konig) ,
i)
i
i)
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Appendix 2. Exotic vascular plant species in the Nature Reserves.
(R — records from field collections, published data from NRS, and published data
during the period 1991-1997 from the “Additions to the Flora of Singapore” and
“The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore” series published in the Gardens’ Bulletin
Singapore 44-49.
H — herbarium specimens records in SING.
P — publication records denoted as follows: C—Corlett (1990, 1991); F-Wee (1983,
1984); N—Corner (1978); T—Chua et al. (1996), Tan et al. (1995), Tan (1995, 1997); W—
Wong (1987).
S — unverified records denoted as follows: 1—observations from NParks staff and
NRS unpublished checklists, 2-unpublished checklist of BTNR flora (Corlett, late
80s), 2—collections from the Centre for Natural Product Research (CNPR) project
and 4—collections from the CTFS project.)
Seeds eee
[Acacia auriculiformis A.Cumn.ex Benth, || |
| Acacia mangium Willd: i A pin
Adiantum laifotumtam |
LAgeratum conyeoidesLs | ee
Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw.
[Antiaristoricaria Leste,
ane
Baie
| Astlepias curassavioa ts" hud Mitel SS
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson subsp. +
micrantha (Nees) Ensermu
Axonopus compressus (Swartz) P.Beaw. | | |
| Rariure Pedder 0 1
[Bauhinia ferrugineaRoxb. ||
Callerya atropurpurea (Wall) Schott + |
| Cana india ie (Sup sn CE Ge
| Coeropin petite ta’ Gans tiv ANG ey NEG ig
Controsema plumieri (Turp.ex Pers.) Benth. ||
bea
omc
Checklist of vascular plants 22
Cleome aculeata L.
Cleome rutidosperma DC.
Clerodendrum paniculatum L.
Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don
Clitorea laurifolia Poir.
Cocos nucifera L.
Complaya trilobata (L.) Strother
Cordia cylindristachya (Ruiz & Pav.) Roem. & Schult.
Costus lucanusianus J. Braun & K. Schum.
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore
Dendrocalamus asper (Roem. & Schult.) Baker ex Heyne
Diodia ocymifolia (Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) Bremek.
Dioscorea hispida Dennst.
Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax
Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker Gawl.
Erechtites hieraciifolia (L.) Raf. ex DC.
Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Sm.
Ficus benjamina L.
Ficus religiosa L.
Garcinia mangostana L.
Gymnopetalum integrifolium (Roxb.) Kurz
Heliconia bihai L.
Heliconia psittacorum Lf.
Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Mill. Arg.
Hyptis brevipes Poit.
Hyptis capitata Jacq.
Indigofera hirsuta L.
Kyllinga polyphylla Willd. ex Kunth
Lansium domesticum Corréa
ag,
c e
= 3
i=) fas)
S oS
= :
a
= 5
= S
<=
= S
=
i =
al:
Sig
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit
Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau
Mangifera indica L.
Manihot esculenta Crantz
Manihot glaziovii Mill. Arg.
222 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Mikania micrantha Kunth
Mimosa bimucronata (DC.) Kuntze
Momordica charantia L.
Oxalis barrelieri L.
Panicum maximum Jacq.
Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) 1.C. Nielsen
Passiflora laurifolia L.
~ a =< =|
z z 2 = |=
=. = |3
SS R/S [2 |£
8 8 5 DIS.
2 iF |? iF ik /8
i Sats ie)
x a S eS
a " 8
= i ro
—_
Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.
| a a ee
Persicaria chinensis (L.)H.Gross | tu) |
| Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach te
[Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thom. | | |
[Physalis minimal) |
Pilea microphylla(L) Liebman
[Pityrogramma calomelanos(L.)Link | | |
[Polygala paniculata. || eT oh nl
|Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq) Cas. | |
Portulaca oleraoales 6 ow
Prion guajava ln, 0) 1 ot) NSA 2A
Quisqualis indica L. -
8
|
igs}
a
S
=
=:
a=)
tas)
=
=
42.
Qu
Q
—
5
wa
x
c
=}
7;
=p
Ruellia tuberosa L.
Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitchell
Saraca cauliflora Baker
Scoparia dulcis L.
Senna alata (L.) Roxb.
Senna siamea (Lam.) Irwin & Barneby
Sida cordifolia L.
Solanum torvum Sw.
Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv.
Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl
B
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl
Checklist of vascular plants Des
Struchium sparganophorum Kuntze
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.
Syngonium podophyllum Schott
Thunbergia alata Boj. ex Sims
Thunbergia fragrans Roxb.
Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Roxb.
Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda
Tridax procumbens L.
Trimezia martinicensis (Jacq.) Herbert
Typha angustifolia L.
Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott
Uncaria gambir (W. Hunt.) Roxb.
Wikstroemia ridleyi Gamble
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Sm.
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Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 225-244.
Bird Biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of Singapore
K.S. LIM
Bird Group, Nature Society (Singapore)
601, Sims Drive, #04-04/05
Pan-I Complex, Singapore 387382
Abstract
Forest clearance and associated disturbance since 1819 are chiefly responsible for the loss
of 70 species from the forest habitat in Singapore. Of the remaining 207 species, 127 are
resident of which only 26 are forest dependent. The rest include 72 migrants and 8 non-
breeding visitors. A comprehensive survey of the central forests, the last of the terrestrial
forests in Singapore, was conducted by members of the Nature Society (Singapore) Bird
Group between July 1993 and June 1997, and increased the known species total for the
area from 171 in 1989 to 207 by 1997. The 35 additions to the Nature Reserves list included
one new to Singapore, Velvet-fronted Nuthatch, and rediscoveries of White-bellied
Woodpecker, the first since 1988, Barred Eagle-owl, since 1925 and Yellow-eared
Spiderhunter, since 1920. Of 19 key species, 14 were recorded during the survey of which
four - Drongo Cuckoo, Blue-rumped Parrot, Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot and Chestnut-
winged Babbler - were found to be widespread within the Central Catchment Nature
Reserve. Four areas found to be of importance because of high species diversity and
concentration of key species were the MacRitchie peninsula, the Mandai Track 15 peninsula,
Nee Soon Swamp Forest and the hill primary forest at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.
Conservation and protection of these areas and the control of poaching and illegal
introduction of alien birds are the keys to the preservation of the current forest bird
diversity and the prevention of further extinction.
Introduction
The central forests consist of two nature reserves in the centre of Singapore:
the 2,675 ha Central Catchment Nature Reserve and the recently enlarged
164 ha Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (National Parks Board, pers. comm.).
These reserves constitute the last remnant of a rainforest habitat that once
covered the island and are important as last refuges for many resident bird
species. This shrinkage and associated disturbance, which began with the
arrival of Stamford Raffles in 1819, resulted in the extinction of 70 resident
species that included entire families, such as partridges, hornbills, trogons
and broadbills (Lim, 1992, 1997). Other families, normally well represented
in the forest habitats of the Sunda region, became very much reduced.
These included bulbuls and babblers, with some reduced to just one
representative species, e.g., barbets and malkohas (Lim, 1992, 1997).
226 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
History
The study of birds in Singapore began with Raffles who collected birds for
the British Museum (Lim, 1997). Raffles was followed by Alfred Russel
Wallace who collected in Singapore between 1854 and 1862, A.O. Hume
(1879-1880), H.R. Kelham (1881—1882) and H.N. Ridley (1898—1901).
There followed a lull after which the collecting tradition continued with
the arrival of erstwhile curators of the Raffles Museum, F.N. Chasen in the
1920s and 1930s and C.A. Gibson-Hill in the 1940s (Bucknill & Chasen,
1927; Gibson-Hill, 1950). Gibson-Hill and his contemporary, R.J. Spittle,
made the first life history studies of birds in Singapore during their World
War II internment and were succeeded in 1968 by P. Ward who conducted
the first avifaunal studies. However, it was not until the arrival of C.J.
Hails in 1983 that the first systematic study of forest birds was carried out.
His findings were published in 1987 (Hails & Jarvis, 1987; Hails, 1992).
There were no subsequent studies until the National Parks Board’s
sponsored bird survey which began in 1993 with the participation of
volunteers from the Nature Society (Singapore).
Survey Objectives
The Nature Society (Singapore) Bird Group commenced a study of the
central forests in July 1993 at the invitation of the National Parks Board
(NParks). The field survey took some 48 months to complete and members
expended over 1,500 observer-hours during the study. The survey was
done in four stages as follows:
MacRitchie Catchment (MC) : July 1993 - June 1994
Seletar Catchment (SC) : July 1994 - June 1995
Peirce Catchment (PC) : July 1995 - June 1996
Bukit Timah (BT) : July 1996 - June 1997
The objectives of the survey were:
1. to determine the status, diversity, density and population of birds in the
Nature Reserves,
2. to map the occurrence of key species (nationally threatened forest
dependent species),
3. to recommend methods of maintaining/improving current bird diversity,
and
4. to identify areas of high bird diversity.
Bird biodiversity BOG
Materials and Methods
To facilitate a uniform and thorough coverage, the central forests were
divided into four parts, each taking one year to complete. In turn, each
part was further divided into five smaller sectors (Figure 1), each being
supervised by an experienced birdwatcher with the aid of 1—S assistants.
The methods employed were as follows:
Line transect counts
Line transects were selected from existing trails within each area and
designed to be representative of the vegetation type of each sector. The
transects varied in length from 0.8 km to 2.3 km.
Two types of transect counts were used: diurnal and nocturnal.
Diurnal transect counts were carried out monthly, commencing at 0730
hours and ending at approximately 0830 to 0930 hours, depending on the
length of each transect and bird activity. Nocturnal transect counts were
also made at less frequent intervals commencing at 1930 hours and ending
at approximately 2030 to 2130 hours.
Birds seen or heard during the transect counts were recorded using
the 25-metre belt method and an estimation of the population and density
derived using the methods recommended by Bibby et al. (1992).
The formula used to calculate species density is D = Nk/L
where D = density
N = total number of birds counted
k = unknown constant = [1-SQR(1-p)|/W
[p=N1/N where N1 is the total number of birds counted in the
inner belt; W = belt width (m)|
L = length of transect (m)
This formula is based on the assumption that all birds occurring
within the transect route are counted and that detectability (the k factor)
decreases linearly with distance.
Area counts
Line transects are by design confined to a particular route and time. In
order that bird diversity and distribution of each area be properly recorded,
additional area counts were conducted by the area leaders either before or
228
UPPER
SELETAR
RESERVOIR
MacRitchie Catchment (MCj
consisting of Sectors A,B GC DES&E
Seletar Catchment (SC)
consisting of Sectors G, H, |, J & K.
Peirce Catchment (PC}
consisting of Sectors l,M N, O&PR
Bukit Timah (BT}
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Figure 1. Map showing sectors surveyed in the Nature Reserves.
Bird biodiversity 229
after line transect counts or on a separate date. Data so obtained were
recorded in designated field survey forms and submitted.
Mapping
Mapping of the ranges of key species was conducted for those recorded in
transect and area counts on an area-by-area basis. The aim of this mapping
study was to determine the occurrence and distribution of key species in
each area so that these could be transferred to the NParks’ Geographic
Information System for future threatened species management and
conservation purposes.
Bird ringing
Bird ringing using mist nets and rings belonging to NParks was carried out
in order to study the movement and longevity of resident birds and the
migration patterns of migrants. Nets were set up along existing trails in the
early morning (by 0600 hours) and taken down at noon.
Birds caught in the net were quickly ringed, measured, photographed
and released near the site where they were caught.
Results
Annotated checklist of selected species
The following is an annotated checklist of species that are nationally
threatened, forest dependent (stenotopic) or key species.
White-bellied Woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis)
Large wood-boring insectivore, the only extant stenotopic picid, nationally
threatened. Frequents canopy and mid-storey, particularly dead trees.
Confined to the MacRitchie Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.
No more than 2 individuals seen since 1993.
Red-crowned Barbet (Megalaima rafflesii)
Large frugivore, the only extant stenotopic barbet, nationally near-
threatened. Frequents canopy and upper storey. Occurs only in the Central
Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserves. Breeding recorded.
Blue-eared Kingfisher (Alcedo meninting)
Small piscivorous kingfisher restricted to forest streams; nationally
230 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
threatened. Confined to the Central Catchment Nature Reserve with regular
sightings in the MacRitchie area. Breeding recorded in 1997.
Drongo Cuckoo = (Surniculus lugubris)
Small insectivore favouring the canopy; nationally threatened. Occurs widely
throughout Central Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserves. Breeding
recorded. Numbers are augmented by winter visitors between October
and March.
Chestnut-bellied Malkoha (Phaenicophaeus sumatranus)
Large insectivore frequenting all levels from lower storey to canopy, the
only extant malkoha; nationally near-threatened. Occurs in both reserves.
Breeding recorded.
Blue-rumped Parrot = (Psittinus cyanurus)
Small frugivore frequenting canopy; nationally threatened. Occurs in both
reserves. Breeding not confirmed.
Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot (Loriculus galgulus)
Very small frugivore of the canopy; nationally threatened. Occurs in both
reserves. Breeding not confirmed.
Glossy Swiftlet | (Collocalia esculenta)
Very small aerial insectivore of the airspace above forests. Confined to the
summit of Bukit Timah. Not recorded since 1990. Breeding not confirmed.
Not recorded during the survey.
Brown Hawk-owl = (Ninox scutulata)
Small insectivore/carnivore; nocturnal; forest stenotopic; common.
Frequents the understorey. Occurs throughout the nature reserves. Breeding
recorded.
Malaysian Eared-nightjar (Eurostopodus temminckii)
Medium-sized aerial insectivore; crepuscular; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Feeds over forest canopy and edges. Confined to Central
Catchment. Breeding not confirmed.
Crested Serpent-eagle (Spilornis cheela)
Large raptor of reptiles and amphibians; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Feeds over canopy. Confined to Central Catchment Nature
Reserve. Breeding recorded.
Bird biodiversity 231
Asian Fairy-bluebird = (Jrena puella)
Small frugivore of forest canopy; forest stenotopic; common. Occurs in
both reserves. Breeding recorded.
Greater Green Leafbird (Chloropsis sonnerati)
Small frugivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened. Occurs
in both reserves. Breeding not confirmed.
Lesser Green Leafbird (Chloropsis cyanopogon)
Small frugivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened. Occurs
in both reserves. Breeding not confirmed.
Lesser Cuckoo-shrike = (Coracina fimbriata)
Small insectivore of canopy and upper storey; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Confined to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Not recorded during
survey. Breeding not confirmed.
Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus)
Small insectivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened.
Confined to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Breeding recorded.
Black-headed Bulbul = (Pycnonotus atriceps)
Small frugivore of upper storey; forest stenotopic; nationally threatend.
Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Breeding not confirmed.
Cream-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus simplex)
Small frugivore of mid and lower storeys; forest stenotopic; nationally
near-threatened. Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.
Red-eyed Bulbul (Pycnonotus brunneus)
Small frugivore of mid and lower storeys; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.
Buff-vented Bulbul —_(Jole olivacea)
Small frugivore of middle and lower storeys; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Confined to Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Not recorded during
the survey. Breeding not confirmed.
Short-tailed Babbler = (Malacocincla malaccensis)
Small insectivore of forest floor and understorey; forest stenotopic; common.
Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.
252 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Moustached Babbler (Malacopteron magnirostre)
Small insectivore of understorey; forest stenotopic; nationally threatened.
Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Breeding recorded.
Chestnut-winged Babbler = (Stachyris erythroptera)
Small insectivore of understorey (especially, resam Dicranopteris spp.)
frequently seen with Striped Tit-babbler; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Occurs in both reserves but rare in Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve. Breeding recorded.
Yellow-vented Flowerpecker (Dicaeum chrysorrheum)
Very small frugivore/insectivore of understorey to canopy; forest stenotopic;
nationally threatened. Occurs in both reserves but not recorded during the
survey. Breeding recorded.
Little Spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostris)
Small insectivore/nectarivore of understorey; forest stenotopic; uncommon.
Occurs in both reserves. Breeding recorded.
Thick-billed Spiderhunter = (Arachnothera crassirostris)
Small insectivore/nectarivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Not recorded
since 1989. Breeding not confirmed.
Yellow-eared Spiderhunter (Arachnothera chrysogenys)
Small insectivore/nectarivore of canopy; forest stenotopic; nationally
threatened. Confined to Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Breeding not
confirmed.
The avifauna
As a result of this survey, 207 species of birds are now known to occur in
the Nature Reserves (Appendix 1). Although this is only 59% of the
national total i.e., 350 (Lim & Gardner, 1997), the Nature Reserves are
home to all 26 extant forest specialists, 40 (75%) of the nationally threatened
species (Lim, 1992) and 2 globally threatened species (Collar et al., 1994).
This is about 75—80% of the species total of lowland forests of similar
size, such as Panti Forest Reserve, Johor and Pasoh Forest Reserve in
Negri Sembilan, in Peninsular Malaysia (pers. obs.). The most important
factor for this impoverishment is the loss of 70 resident species, which if
added to the total, would be approximately 100%, in terms of number of
species one would expect to record in a Peninsular Malaysian forest of
similar size. However, one important difference is dominance of generalist
Bird biodiversity 233
(eurytopic) species, 101 species (about 80%) of the resident species. In a
mainland forest, the percentage of eurytopics would be about 25% (pers.
obs.; Medway & Wells, 1976). Contributing factors are that Singapore is an
island and many species are not able to cross the narrow Johor Straits and
the history of land clearance, which created opportunities for open country
species to invade forest niches left vacant by extirpated forest species.
During the four-year survey, from July 1993 to June 1997, a total of
175 species (85% of the species total), were recorded from both reserves.
The Central Catchment Nature Reserve’s bird list increased from 155 to
185 species, an increase of 30 species or 19%. Of the grand total, 170 or
92% were recorded during the survey, with 16 species not detected. Of the
17 key species that had been observed in Central Catchment Nature
Reserve, 13 (76%) were recorded during the survey (Table 1). Of the 35
nationally threatened species observed in Central Catchment Nature
Reserve, 25 (71%) were recorded. The bird list for Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve and its extension increased from 117 to 143, an increase of 26
species or 22%. Of these, 114 were found during the survey, with 29 not
detected. Of the 13 key species that had been observed in Bukit Timah
Nature Reserve, 8 (62%) were recorded during the survey (Table 1). Of
the 21 nationally threatened species previously observed in Bukit Timah
Nature Reserve, 15 (71%) were recorded.
Table 1. Distribution of key species in the Nature Reserves.
(MC — MacRitchie Catchment, SC — Seletar Catchment, PC — Peirce Catchment,
BT — Bukit Timah)
Common Name MC SC PC BT
White-bellied Woodpecker
Blue-eared Kingfisher
Drongo Cuckoo
Blue-rumped Parrot
Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot
Malaysian Eared-nightjar
: Glossy Swiftlet
rested Serpent-eagle
reater Green Leafbird
esser Green Leafbird Z
esser Cuckoo-shrike
carlet Minivet
lack-headed Bulbul -
ed-eyed Bulbul of
uff-vented Bulbul
: oustached Babbler =
hestnut-winged Babbler e 3
ellow-vented Flowerpecker
hick-billed Spiderhunter
*
CQ
.
ae
N
*
Ww
elie)
<
Q
Rl Rey Rell RIT RJR |e ~ MBI] QO!N]
:
19;
234 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Bird status
Of the 207 bird species recorded in the nature reserves, 127 (61%) are
residents, 72 (35%) are migrants and 8 (4%) are non-breeding visitors. Of
the total of 185 species recorded in the catchment, 120 (65%) are residents,
65 (35%) are migrants with 1 (1%) non-breeding visitor. For Bukit Timah,
its 143 species comprised 91 residents (64%), 47 (33%) migrants and 5
(4%) non-breeding visitors.
Key species
Of the 19 key species, all but 5 species were recorded (Table 1). Of these
five, the Glossy Swiftlet was last recorded in 1990, Lesser Cuckoo-shrike in
1986, Buff-vented Bulbul in 1991, Yellow-vented Flowerpecker in 1990
and Thick-billed Spiderhunter in 1989. All but the last-named species are
confined to Bukit Timah.
Of the 14 key species recorded, only 4 species - Drongo Cuckoo,
Blue-rumped Parrot, Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot and Chestnut-winged
Babbler - are relatively widespread and occur in all four areas. The
remaining 12 species live a precarious existence, especially those which
number less than 5 individuals and occur in a single area, e.g., White-
bellied Woodpecker (MacRitchie) and Scarlet Minivet (Bukit Timah).
New discoveries
The survey added several species to the list of the Nature Reserves.
Noteworthy amongst these were Large Hawk-cuckoo, Oriental Cuckoo,
Red-legged Crake and Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Stunning rediscoveries
included White-bellied Woodpecker (first since 1988), Barred Eagle-owl
(1925) and Yellow-eared Spiderhunter (1920). Most of the other additions
were forest edge, parkland or open country species recorded within reserve
boundaries, e.g., Lower Peirce, Bukit Timah extension.
Other findings
The globally threatened Straw-headed Bulbul appears to be invading from
the Sembawang area, being recorded in sectors G, I, P, K and the Bukit
Timah extension. The Black-headed Bulbul also occurs in both Chestnut
Avenue sectors in addition to its known presence in MacRitchie. Another
nationally threatened species, Crested Serpent-eagle is present in E, I, M,
N and O. The little known Malaysian Eared-nightyjar is also recorded in
sectors H, I and P in addition to MacRitchie. Yet another locally threatened
Bird biodiversity 235
species, Little Green-pigeon, has not been recorded in the central forests
or anywhere else in Singapore since it was last seen in the Seletar Catchment
im: 1992.
Breakdown by areas
Based on the survey results, the bird inventory of the four forest areas is
given below:
ah Ww
in RN
Seletar Catchment (SC)
Peirce Catchment (PC) ae, Sioa lie te ithadnil,
Bukit Timah (BT)
Breakdown by sectors
The following is a breakdown of the individual sectors and their species
count (with numbers of key species in parenthesis):
M8
N= 563)
Soh
Br-11®)
High diversity - B, I, D, C, O, BT
High key species - B, D, C, I, H, L, M, O, BT.
High diversity and high key species - B, C, D, I, O, BT.
From this simple comparison, it can be seen that areas of high bird diversity
as well as high concentration of key species can be defined as follows:
1. The MacRitchie peninsula comprising sectors B, C & D.
2. The Mandai Track 15 peninsula comprising sector I.
3. The Nee Soon Swamp Forest comprising sector O.
4. Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.
236 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Conclusions
The survey has shown that while some forest dependent species are doing
well, having both stable numbers and a wide distribution, virtually all key
species exhibit signs of decline. The reasons for this decline are not known
but are suspected to be related to the long-term effects of isolation,
competition and inbreeding.
Three primary core areas, Bukit Timah, the Sime-Shinto-Thomson
peninsula in MacRitchie and Nee Soon Swamp Forest in Peirce, and a
secondary one in the Mandai Track 15 area in Seletar, have been identified
in the survey. The future of forest dependent, in particular key species, lies
in the strict protection of these four sites. In addition, there is a need to
ensure that bird populations of the three catchments are allowed to mingle
to generate a healthy gene pool by linking intervening waterbodies with
corridors and also by conserving adjacent sectors as protective buffers.
The biggest threat to forest birds is unviable population levels for
key species and isolation for forest dependent species. A secondary threat
is forest clearance and disturbance as these factors result in habitat
shrinkage, and the introduction of predators (e.g. mammals) and
competitors (generalist birds). A third factor is the introduction of alien
birds.
Acknowledgments
The writer would like to thank all participants of the Nature Reserves Bird
Survey 1993-1997 and members of the Nature Society’s Bird Group for
help with the survey. Thanks are also extended to the National Parks
Board for the invitation to participate in the survey as well as for logistic
support.
References
Bibby, C.J., D.A. Hill & N.D. Burgess. 1992. Bird Census Techniques.
Academic Press, London, UK.
Bucknill, J.A.S. & F.N. Chasen. 1927. The Birds of Singapore Island.
Government Printers, Singapore.
Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Sattersfield. 1994. Birds to Watch 2. BirdLife
International, Cambridge, UK.
Gibson-Hill, C.A. 1950. A checklist of the birds of Singapore Island. Bulletin
of the Raffles Museum. 21: 132-183.
Bird biodiversity 237
Hails, C.J. 1992. Improving the quality of life in Singapore by creating and
conserving wildlife habitats. In: B.H. Chua (ed.). Public space: Design,
Use and Management. Singapore University Press. pp. 138-158.
Hails, C.J. & F. Jarvis. 1987. Birds of Singapore. Times Editions, Singapore.
Lim, K.S. 1992. Vanishing Birds of Singapore. The Nature Society
(Singapore).
Lim, K.S. & D. Gardner. 1997. Birds: An Illustrated Field Guide to the
Birds of Singapore. Sun Tree Publishing Limited, Singapore.
Medway, Lord & D.R. Wells. 1976. The Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Vol
5: Conclusion and Survey of Every Species. Witherby, London, UK.
238
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Appendix 1. A Checklist of the Birds of the Nature Reserves of
Singapore.
(Status : R — Resident, M — Migrant, V — Non-breeding Visitor, I — Introduced, ? —
Status Uncertain.
Abundance Codes : 1 — Rare, 2 —- Common, 3 — Abundant
* - Key species. Species which are nationally threatened and forest dependent.
Location : CCNR — Central Catchment Nature Reserve, BTINR — Bukit Timah
Nature Reserve.)
Part A : Species which are believed to be genuinely wild birds.
No. Common Name
a ee oe ee eee See ae
BQ BQO BQO HO KN HW NWN NWN NO KF EF | — eT se oN
SIARARKHGSSFSSHRADAARANHE S
—
oi
Blue-breasted Quail
Lesser Whistling-Duck
Cotton Pygmy-Goose
Barred Buttonquail
Sunda Woodpecker
Rufous Woodpecker
White-bellied Woodpecker*
Banded Woodpecker
Laced Woodpecker
Common Flameback
Red-crowned Barbet
Coppersmith Barbet
Dollarbird
Common Kingfisher
Blue-eared Kingfisher*
Black-backed Kingfisher
Stock-billed Kingfisher
Ruddy Kingfisher
White-throated Kingfisher
Black-capped Kingfisher
Collared Kingfisher
Blue-throated Bee-eater
Blue-tailed Bee-eater
Chestnut-winged Cuckoo
Large Hawk-cuckoo
Hodgson’s Hawk-cuckoo
Indian Cuckoo
Oriental Cuckoo
Species
Coturnix chinensis
Dendrocygna javanica
Nettapus coromandelianus
Turnix suscitator
Dendrocopus moluccensis
Celeus brachyurus
Dryocopus javensis
Picus miniaceus
Picus vittatus
Dinopium javanense
Megalaima rafflesii
Megalaima haemacephala
Eurystomus orientalis
Alcedo atthis
Alcedo meninting —
Ceyx erithacus
Pelargopsis capensis
Halcyon coromanda
Halcyon smyrnensis
Halcyon pileata
Todirhamphus chloris
Merops viridis
Merops philippinus
Clamator coromandus
Cuculus sparverioides
Cuculus fugax
Cuculus micropterus
Cuculus orientalis
Status
Rl
Rl
Remarks
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
_ Forest dependent.
Confined to CCNR.
Bird biodiversity
No. Common Name
29.
30.
Bile
a2
B33
34.
33.
36.
37.
38.
ay.
4(),
41.
42.
43,
44.
45,
46,
47,
48,
49.
50.
Eye
aya
33,
54.
ER
56.
ST.
58.
a,
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
Banded Bay Cuckoo
Plaintive Cuckoo
Rusty-breasted Cuckoo
Little Bronze-cuckoo
Violet Cuckoo
Drongo Cuckoo*
Asian Koel
Chestnut-bellied Malkoha
Greater Coucal
Lesser Coucal
Tanimbar Cockatoo
Blue-rumped Parrot*
Blue-crowned Hanging Parrot*
Rose-ringed Parakeet
Red-breasted Parakeet
Long-tailed Parakeet
Glossy Swiftlet*
Black-nest Swiftlet
Edible-nest Swiftlet
Silver-backed Needletail
Brown-backed Needletail
Asain Palmswitt
Fork-tailed Swift
House Swift
Grey-rumped Treeswift
Oriental Scops-owl
Collared Scops-owl
Barred Eagle-owl
Buffy Fish-owl
Spotted Wood-owl
Brown Hawk-owl
Malaysian Eared-nightjar*
Grey Nightjar
Large-tailed Nightjar
Rock Pigeon
Spotted Dove
Species
Cacomantis sonneratii
Cacomantis merulinus
Cacomantis sepulcralis
Chrysococcyx minutillus
Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus
Surniculus lugubris
Eudynamys scolopacea
Phaenicophaeus sumatranus
Centropus sinensis
Centropus bengalensis
Cacatua goffini
Psittinus cyanurus
Loriculus galgulus
Psittacula krameri
Psittacula alexandri
Psittacula longicauda
Collocalia esculenta
Collocalia maxima
Collocalia fuciphaga
Hirundapus cochinchinensis
Hirundapus giganteus
Cypsiurus balasiensis
Apus pacificus
Apus nipalensis
Hemiprocne longipennis
Otus sunia
Otus lempiji
Ketupa ketupu
Ketupa ketupu
Strix seloputo
Ninox scutulata
Eurostopodus temminckit
Caprimulgus indicus
Caprimulgus macrurus
Columba livia
Streptopelia chinensis
Status
R2
Rl
IR2
De he
Remarks
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Forest dependent.
Confined to BTNR.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Forest dependent.
Confined to CCNR.
240
No. Common Name
65. Emerald Dove
66. Zebra Dove
67. Little Green-pigeon
68. Pink-necked Green-pigeon
69. Thick-billed Green-pigeon
70. Jambu Fruit-dove
71. Pied Imperial Pigeon
72. Red-legged Crake
73. White-breasted Waterhen
74. Pintail Snipe
75. Common Sandpiper
76. Common Greenshank
77. Pheasant-tailed Jacana
78. Pacific Golden Plover
79. Oriental Pratincole
80. Little Tern
81. White-winged Tern
82. Osprey
83. Black Baza
84. Oriental Honey-buzzard
85. Brahiminy Kite
86. White-bellied Fish-eagle
87. Grey-headed Fish-eagle
88. Crested Serpent-eagle*
89. Eastern Marsh-harrier
90. Himalayan Griffon
91. Crested Goshawk
92. Chinese Goshawk
93. Japanese Sparrowhawk
94. Besra
95. Grey-faced Buzzard
96. Changeable Hawk-eagle
97. Black-thighed Falconet
98. Peregrine Falcon
99. Purple Heron
100. Great Egret
Species
Chalcophaps indica
Geopelia striata
Treron olax
Treron vernans
Treron curvirostra
Ptilinopus jambu
Ducula bicolor
Rallina fasciata
Amaurornis phoenicurus
Gallinago stenura
Tringa hypoleucos
Tringa nebularia
Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Pluvialis fulva
Glareola maldivarum
Sterna albifrons
Chlidonias leucopterus
Pandion haliaetus
Aviceda leuphotes
Pernis ptilorhyncus
Haliastur indus
Haliaeetus leucogaster
Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus
Spilornis cheela
Circus spilonotus
Gyps himalayensis
Accipiter trivirgatus
Accipiter soloensis
Accipiter gularis
Accipiter virgatus
Butastur indicus
Spizaetus cirrhatus
Microhierax fringillarius
Falco peregrinus
Ardea purpurea
Casmerodius albus
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Status
R2
Rl
Rl
R3
R2
Vi
V1
Rl
Rl
M2
M3
M2
Ml
Ml
M1.
R2
M2
M2
M2
M2
R3
R3
R2
Rl
Ml
V1
Rl
Ml
M3
V1
Ml
R2
Rl
Ml
R2
Ml
Remarks
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Confined to CCNR.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Bird biodiversity
. Common Name
. Cattle Egret
. Chinese Pond-heron
. Striated Heron
. Black-crowned Night-heron
. Malayan Night-heron
. Yellow Bittern
. Schrenck’s Bittern
. Cinnamon Bittern
. Black Bittern
. Hooded Pitta
. Blue-winged Pitta
. Golden-bellied Gerygone
. Asian Fairy-bluebird
. Greater Green Leafbird*
. Lesser Green Leafbird*
. Blue-winged Leafbird
. Tiger Shrike
. Brown Shrike
. House Crow
. Large-billed Crow
. Black-naped Oriole
. Lesser Cuckoo-shrike*
. Pied Triller
. Ashy Minivet
. Scarlet Minivet*
126.
IBaY
128.
129,
130.
i.
132.
133.
134,
135.
136.
Pied Fantail
Ashy Drongo
Crow-billed Drongo
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo
Asian Paradise-flycatcher
Japanese Paradise-flycatcher
Common lora
White-throated Rock-thrush
Blue Rock-thrush
Orange-headed Thrush
Siberian Thrush
Species
Bubulcus ibis
Ardeola bacchus
Butorides striatus
Nycticorax nycticorax
Gorsachius melanolophus
Ixobrychus sinensis
Ixobrychus eurhythmus
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
Ixobrychus flavicollis
Pitta sordida
Pitta moluccensis
Gerygone sulphurea
Irena puella
Chloropsis sonnerati
Chloropsis cyanopogon
Chloropsis cochinchinensis
Lantus tigrinus
Lantus cristatus
Corvus splendens
Corvus macrorhynchos
Oriolus chinensis
Coracina fimbriata
Lalage nigra
Pericrocotus divaricatus
Pericrocotus flammeus
Rhipidura javanica
Dicrurus leucophaeus
Dicrurus annectans
Dicrurus paradiseus
Terpsiphone paradisi
Terpsiphone atrocaudata
Aegithina tiphia
Monticola gularis
Monticola solitarius
Zoothera citrina
Zoothera siberica
Status
Ml
Ml
R3
Rl
Ml
M1
Ml
Rl
M1
Ml
Ml
Rl
R3
Rl
R2
R3
M3
M2
Rl
R3
R3
Rl
R2
M2
R1
Rl
Ml
M2
R3
M2
Ml
R2
Ml
Ml
Ml
Ml
241
Remarks
Nationally threatened.
Forest dependent.
Confined to BTINR.
No. Common Name Species
137. Eyebrowed Thrush Turdus obscurus
138. Brown-chested Jungle-flycatcher Rhinomyias brunneata
139. Dark-sided Flycatcher Muscicapa sibirica
140. Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
. Ferruginous Flycatcher
2. Yellow-rumped Flycatcher
. Narcissus Flycatcher
. Mugimaki Flycatcher
5. Blue-and-white Flycatcher
. Siberian Blue Robin
. Oriental Magpie-robin
. White-rumped Shama
. Asian Glossy Starling
. Purple-backed Starling
. Common Myna
. Javan Myna
. Hill Myna
. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch
. Barn Swallow
. Pacific Swallow
. Red-rumped Swallow
. Asian House-martin
. Straw-headed Bulbul
Black-headed Bulbul*
Black-crested Bulbul
Red-whiskered Bulbul
Yellow-vented Bulbul
Olive-winged Bulbul
Cream-vented Bulbul
Red-eyed Bulbul*
Buff-vented Bulbul*
Streaked Bulbul
Ashy Bulbul
Yellow-bellied Prinia
Pallas’s Warbler
Muscicapa ferruginea
Ficedula zanthopygia
Ficedula narcissina
Ficedula mugimaki
Cyanoptila cyanomelana
Luscinia cyanea
Copsychus saularis
Copsychus malabaricus
Aplonis panayensis
Sturnus sturninus
Acridotheres tristis
Acridotheres javanicus
Gracula religiosa
Sitta frontalis
Hirundo rustica
Hirundo tahitica
Hirundo daurica
Delichon dasypus
Pycnonotus zeylanicus
Pycnonotus atriceps
Pycnonotus melanicterus
Pycnonotus jocosus
Pycnonotus goiavier
Pycnonotus plumosus
Pycnonotus simplex
Pycnonotus brunneus
Tole olivacea
Ixos malaccensis
Hemixos flavala
Prinia flaviventris
Locustella certhiola
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Status
M1
Ml
M2
M3
M1
M3
Ml
Ml
M1
M3
Rl
Rl
R3
M3
R2
R3
R3
V1
M3
R3
M2
M1
R2
RI
IR2
IR2
R3
R3
R2
R2
RI
V1
MI
RI
MI
Remarks
Globally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
Globally/nationally
threatened.
Confined to CCNR.
Forest dependent.
Confined to BINR.
Bird biodiversity
No.
V2.
173.
174.
195;
176.
Wee
178.
es
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
194,
195.
196.
197.
198.
199,
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
Common Name
Common Tailorbird
Dark-necked Tailorbird
Rufous-tailed Tailorbird
Inornate Warbler
Arctic Warbler
Eastern Crowned-warbler
Species
Orthotomus sutorius
Orthotomus atrogularis
Orthotomus sericeus
Phylloscopus inornatus
Phylloscopus borealis
Phylloscopus coronatus
White-crested Laughingthrush Garrulax canorus
Hwamei
White-chested Babbler
Abbott’s Babbler
Short-tailed Babbler
Moustached Babbler*
Chestnut-winged Babbler*
Striped Tit-babbler
Thick-billed Flowerpecker
Yellow-vented Flowerpecker*
Orange-bellied Flowerpecker
Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker
Plain-throated Sunbird
Purple-throated Sunbird
Olive-backed Sunbird
Crimson Sunbird
Little Spiderhunter
Thick-billed Spiderhunter*
Yellow-eared Spiderhunter
Eurasian Tree-sparrow
Forest Wagtail
Yellow Wagtail
Grey Wagtail
Paddyfield Pipit
Baya Weaver
White-rumped Munia
Javan Munia
Scaly-breasted Munia
Black-headed Munia
White-headed Munia
Garrulax canorus
Trichastoma rostratum
Malacocincla abbotti
Malacocincla malaccensis
Malacopteron magnirostre
Stachyris erythroptera
Macronous gularis
Dicaeum agile
Dicaeum chrysorrheum
Dicaeum trigonostigma
Dicaeum cruentatum
Anthreptes malacensis
Neactarinia sperata
Nectarinia jugularis
Aethopyga siparaja
Arachnothera longirostris
Arachnothera crassirostris
Arachnothera chrysogenys
Passer montanus
Dendronanthus indicus
Motcilla flava
Motacilla cinerea
Anthus rufulus
Ploceus philippinus
Lonchura striata
Lonchura leucogastroides
Lonchura punctulata
Lonchura malacca
Lonchura maja
Status
Rl
R3
R2
M1
M3
M2
IRI
IR2
Rl
R2
R3
Rl
R2
R3
Vi
Rl
R3
R2
R2
R2
Rl
R3
R3
Rl
Rl
Rl
M2
M1
M1
R2
Rl
RI
IRI
R2
Rl
R2
243
Remarks
Nationally threatened.
Forest dependent.
Confined to CCNR.
Forest dependent.
Confined to CCNR.
Nationally threatened.
Nationally threatened.
244 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Part B: Species that are suspected to be escapees.
No. Common Name
1. Red Junglefowl
2. OQOnental Pied Hornbill
. Black Magpie
4. Red Lory
5. Black Hornbill
6. Sooty-headed Bulbul
7. Milky Stock
8. Painted Stock
9. Great Argus
10. Australian Pelican
11. Azure-winged Magpie
12. Green Wood-hoopoe
13. Grey Treepie
14. Silver-eared Mesia
15. Black-winged Starling
Part C : Species which are of doubtful status. i.e., their origin cannot be ascertained.
No. Common Name
1. Grey-headed Canary-flycatcher
2. Red-bearded Bee-eater
3. Red-throated Barbet
4. Mountain Imperial Pigeon
(nA
Maroon Woodpecker
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 245-265.
The Diversity and Conservation Status of Fishes
in the Nature Reserves of Singapore
PETER KE NG@AND KELVIN:K.P. LIM
Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research
Department of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore
Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260
Abstract
An update on the taxonomy and conservation status of the 61 indigenous species of
freshwater fishes now known from Singapore is provided. Of these, 26 species (43%) are
extinct. Of the 35 extant species, 33 are known in the Nature Reserves and 21 appear to be
restricted there. Of the 52 introduced species of fish in Singapore, 17 are present in the
Nature Reserves. The conservation status of native fishes in the Nature Reserves is assessed
and the survival of highly threatened species discussed. The significance of the Nature
Reserves for freshwater fish conservation is highlighted.
Introduction
The freshwater fish fauna of Singapore is among the best studied in the
region and has been the subject of many publications (Alfred, 1961, 1966;
Johnson, 1973; Munro, 1990; Lim & P.K.L. Ng, 1990; P.K.L. Ng & Lim,
1996). In the first major synopsis of the Singapore ichthyofauna, Alfred
(1966) listed a total of 73 native and introduced species from Singapore of
which 42 were still extant. Alfred (1968) subsequently listed 35 native
species as extant and believed 19 were extinct.
It was 22 years before the next appraisal was made by Lim & PKA.
Ng (1990) in their guide to the freshwater fishes of Singapore. By then,
several developments had taken place with direct implications on local
freshwater fish conservation. Channa gachua, one of the species presumed
extinct by Alfred (1968) was rediscovered (P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1989), while
two others, Channa melasoma and Pseudomystus rugosus [as Leiocassis cf.
siamensis| were added to the Singapore ichthyofauna (P.K.L. Ng & Lim,
1990; Munro, 1990). P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996) subsequently reviewed what
was known about the freshwater fish fauna of Singapore, listing 104 species
of which 59 were regarded as native species, with 23 being extinct.
Over the years, taxonomic revisions of several groups have also shown
that some of the old records were misidentifications. From studies by P.K.L.
Ng & Kottelat (1994), H.H. Ng & Lim (1995), Tan & P.K.L. Ng (1996) and
246 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Siebert (1997), five species were added to Singapore’s known fauna, viz.
Betta tomi (specimens had been misidentified as B. pugnax), Ompok
fumidus (misidentified as O. leiacanthus), Parakysis longirostris
(misidentified as P. verrucosus), Rasbora paucisqualis (misidentified as R.
bankanensis) and Puntius banksi (misidentified as P. binotatus). Of these,
Betta tomi and Ompok fumidus are now regarded as extinct (P.K.L. Ng &
Kottelat, 1994; Tan & P.K.L. Ng, 1996).
A synopsis of the freshwater fish fauna in the Nature Reserves
(Central Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserves) of Singapore (Table
1) is provided together with an annotated checklist for native and exotic
species, both extant and recently extinct. General localities within the
Central Catchment Nature Reserve (CCNR) and the Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve (BTNR) where each species is presently known to occur are
provided. We also examine how the continued conservation of the remaining
forest in the centre of the island (i.e., the Nature Reserves) is necessary for
the long-term survival of most of the extant fauna. The emphasis is on
species that complete their life cycle in fresh water.
Table 1. Extant indigenous freshwater fish species of Singapore.
(EN = Endangered, CO = Common, UN = Uncommon, FO = Forest waters, OP =
Open waters, NSS = Nee Soon Swamp Forest, BINR = Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve, NR = Nature Reserves (excluding NSS and BTNR), OA = Open rural
areas, + = present, - = absent)
No. Species Status Habitat NSS BINR NR OA
Family CYPRINIDAE
1. Boraras maculatus EN FO - - + -
2. Cyclocheilichthys apogon EN FO - : + -
3. Puntius banksi CO FO + + ~ -
4. Puntius hexazona EN FO + - - -
5. Puntius lateristriga EN FO - + - -
6. Rasbora einthovenii CO FO + + ~ -
7. Rasbora elegans CO FO + + - -
8. | Rasbora heteromorpha EN FO + - - -
Family BALITORIDAE
9. | Nemacheilus selangoricus EN FO + - - -
Family COBITIDAE
10. Pangio shelfordii EN FO + - : -
Family SILURIDAE
11. Silurichthys hasselti EN FO + - - -
Diversity and conservation status of fishes
i
18.
19.
20.
cae
a2
ah
24.
35.
247
. Species Status Habitat NSS BINR NR OA
Family CLARIIDAE
Clarias batrachus CO OP - . es ois
Clarias teijsmanni EN FO + oh + :
Family AKYSIDAE
Parakysis longirostris EN FO ~ 5 L :
Family BAGRIDAE
Mystus gulio CO OP - - z +
Pseudomystus rugosus EN FO + - - z
Family APLOCHEILIDAE
Aplocheilus panchax CO OP + - ~ -
Family ADRIANICHTHYIDAE
Oryzias javanicus CO OP - - 2 +
Family HEMIRAMPHIDAE
Dermogenys pusilla CO OP/FO ~ - - -
Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus EN FO + : + :
Family NANDIDAE
Nandus nebulosus EN FO - + + 3
Family GOBIIDAE
Gobiopterus birtwistlei CO OP = - + +
Oxyeleotris marmorata CO OP/FO - ~ - ~
Family ANABANTIDAE
Anabas testudineus CO OP/FO = - - -
Family OSPHRONEMIDAE
Betta imbellis UN OP/FO 3 i * +
Betta pugnax CO FO + + + i
Luciocephalus pulcher EN FO + : + L
Trichogaster trichopterus CO OP - ~ + -
Trichopsis vittata CO OP/FO - - - -
Family CHANNIDAE
Channa gachua EN FO + + ve :
Channa lucius CO FO + + + L
Channa melasoma EN FO ve 2 4. E
Channa striata CO OP/FO re if id +
Family MASTACEMBELIDAE
Macrognathus maculatus EN FO + - :
Family SYNBRANCHIDAE
Monopterus albus CO OP/FO - - ~ -
248 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Unless otherwise stated, material has been examined of all species
found in the Nature Reserves. These are deposited in the Zoological
Reference Collection (ZRC) of the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity
Research, Department of Biological Sciences, National University of
Singapore. Much of the findings came from surveys conducted under the
purview of the National Parks Board. However, recent surveys on the fish
fauna of the Nature Reserves have not been exhaustive as some streams
and reservoir inlets are difficult to access. Measurements are of the standard
length (SL) unless otherwise stated. Taxonomic and ecological notes on
each species already mentioned in Alfred (1966), Lim & P.K.L. Ng (1990)
and P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996) are not repeated. Systematic classification
follows Nelson (1994) with some modifications.
Annotated Checklist
Extant Native Species in the Nature Reserves
Order Cypriniformes
Family Cyprinidae
Boraras maculatus (Duncker)
CCNR: streams and swamps in Sime Road forest and along southern shore
of MacRitchie Reservoir.
Cyclocheilichthys apogon (Valenciennes)
CCNR: MacRitchie Reservoir, and streams in Sime Road forest.
The probability of this species having been introduced many years ago
cannot be ascertained as it is widely distributed in Southeast Asia.
Puntius banksi Herre
CCNR: common in streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, Lower Peirce
forest and Sime Road forest. BTNR: swamp along eastern boundary.
Puntius hexazona Weber & de Beaufort
CCNR: apparently restricted to the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
Puntius lateristriga (Valenciennes)
CCNR: streams in the Sime Road and Lower Peirce forests. BINR: swamp
along eastern boundary.
Diversity and conservation status of fishes 249
Rasbora einthovenii (Bleeker)
CCNR: common in streams throughout area. BINR: swamp along eastern
boundary.
Rasbora elegans Volz
CCNR: common in streams throughout the area. BINR: swamp along
eastern boundary.
Rasbora heteromorpha Duncker
CCNR: streams in the Sime Road forest and Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
Family Balitoridae
Nemacheilus selangoricus Duncker
CCNR: apparently restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
Family Cobitidae
Pangio shelfordii (Popta)
CCNR: apparently restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
The species name is mis-spelt as sheldfordii by P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996:
rif).
Order Siluriformes
Family Siluridae
Silurichthys hasseltii Bleeker
CCNR: apparently restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
The genus Silurichthys was recently revised by H.H. Ng & P.K.L. Ng (1998:
302).
Family Bagridae
Pseudomystus rugosus (Regan)
CCNR: Known only from streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
Identified as Pseudomystus cf. siamensis by P.K.L. Ng & Lim, (1996: 112,
Fig. 2), the specimens appear to fit the descriptions for Pseudomystus
rugosus best, but lack black markings on the caudal fin. Conspecific
examples are also known from Pulau Bintan, the large Indonesian island
off the southeastern coast of Singapore.
250 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Family Akysidae
Parakysis longirostris Ng & Lim
CCNR: apparently confined to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
This species was recently described from Singapore (type locality) by H.H.
Ng & Lim (1995).
Family Clariidae
Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)
CCNR: drainages along boundary and in exposed areas. BITNR: drainages
along boundary.
Clarias teijsmanni Bleeker
CCNR: Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
This species appears to be confined to shaded streams, while Clarias
batrachus frequents exposed habitats.
Order Cyprinodontiformes
Family Aplocheilidae
Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)
CCNR: common in open bodies of water, especially the MacRitchie
Reservoir and streams in the adjacent Sime Road forest and Seletar
Reservoir Park.
Order Beloniformes
Family Hemiramphidae
Dermogenys pusilla van Hasselt
CCNR: MacRitchie Reservoir and adjacent streams in Sime Road forest.
Also in streams in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park and along Lorong
Banir.
The populations in the MacRitchie Reservoir and Sime Road forest are
land-locked.
Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus (Bleeker)
CCNR: streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and Sime Road forest.
Diversity and conservation status of fishes 251
Order Perciformes
Family Nandidae
Nandus nebulosus (Gray)
CCNR: streams in the Sime Road and Lower Peirce forests. BTINR: swamp
along eastern boundary.
Family Gobiidae
The family Eleotrididae in which Oxyeleotris marmorata used to belong,
has been included in the Gobiidae (see Hoese & Gill, 1993; Lim & Larson,
1994).
Gobiopterus birtwistlei (Herre)
CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir.
Although it is mainly found in brackish water of estuarine areas, this species
appears to be able to breed under land-locked conditions as in the Tengeh
Reservoir in the Western Catchment.
Oxyeleotris marmorata Bleeker
CCNR: common in the Upper Seletar and Lower Peirce Reservoirs, and
their adjacent streams.
Family Anabantidae
Anabas testudineus (Bloch)
CCNR: common in streams and swamps.
Family Osphronemidae
The families Belontiidae and Luciocephalidae are presently part of the
Osphronemidae (Britz et al., 1995).
Betta imbellis Ladiges
CCNR: streams in the Sime Road forest and along Lorong Banir.
Betta pugnax (Cantor)
CCNR: common in small streams and swamps throughout area. BINR:
swamp along eastern boundary, Jungle Fall Valley.
This is the most common anabantoid in forest areas and is the only fish
present in small streams in the interior of the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve.
252 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Luciocephalus pulcher (Gray)
CCNR: appears to be restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
Trichogaster trichopterus (Pallas)
CCNR: exposed water bodies.
Trichopsis vittata (Cuvier)
CCNR: common in exposed and weed-choked water bodies. BINR: swamp
along eastern boundary.
Family Channidae
Channa gachua (Hamilton)
CCNR: small streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and the Chestnut
Drive area.
The population from the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Johnson, 1973: 110
as Ophicephalus gachua) has not been seen in recent years.
Channa lucius (Cuvier)
CCNR: streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and Sime Road forest, and
Lower Peirce Reservoir. BINR: swamp along eastern boundary.
Channa melasoma (Bleeker)
CCNR: small streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and Lower Peirce
Forest.
Channa striata (Bloch)
CCNR: common in water bodies.
Order Synbranchiformes
Family Synbranchidae
Monopterus albus (Zuiew)
CCNR: in streams and swamps.
Family Mastacembelidae
Macrognathus maculatus (Valenciennes)
CCNR: appears to be restricted to streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest
and adjacent areas.
Diversity and conservation status of fishes 25
Recently Extinct Native Species
Alfred (1966) has already discussed in some detail the freshwater fish
species previously known from Singapore (Table 2). Some species, (e.g.,
Wallago leerii and Tor tambroides) which were supposed to have occurred
in Singapore in the past but are now extinct, and whose presence in
Singapore has been debated have been discussed by Johnson (1973) and
Lim & P.K.L. Ng (1990). One species which Alfred (1966) listed as extinct
has since been refound (Channa gachua, fide P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1989). In
addition, Channa melasoma and Pseudomystus rugosus (P.K.L. Ng & Lim,
1990, 1992, respectively) are new records.
Table 2. Extinct indigenous freshwater fish species.
(FO = Forest waters, OP = Open waters, LRF = large river fauna, + = present, -
= absent)
No. Species Habitat LRF
Family CYPRINIDAE
& Barbodes schwanenfeldii FO/OP ~
ye. Discherodontus halei FO 7
ks Hampala macrolepidota FO 7
4. Labiobarbus festivus FO -
> Osteochilus melanopleura FO ~
6. Osteochilus spilurus FO -
7. Oxygaster anomalura FO +
8. Puntius dunckeri FO -
a Rasbora cephalotaenia FO -
10. =Rasbora paucisqualis FO/OP .
11. Tor tambroides FO
Family COBITIDAE
12. = Pangio semicincta FO :
Family SILURIDAE
13. | Micronema micronema FO f
14. Ompok bimaculatus FO +
15. © Ompok fumidus FO -
16. —~Wallago leerii FO +
Family CLARIIDAE
17. ~~ Clarias meladerma FO +
Family SISORIIDAE
18. Glyptothorax fuscus FO +
Family BAGRIDAE
19. Hemibagrus nemurus FO +
254 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
No. Species Habitat LRF
Family PRISTOLEPIDAE
20.‘ Pristolepis fasciata FO 7
Family GOBIIDAE
21. Pseudogobiopsis oligactis OP/FO -
22. Pseudogobiopsis siamensis OP/FO -
Family OSPHRONEMIDAE
23. Belontia hasselti FO -
24. ~~ Betta tomi FO -
Family MASTACEMBELIDAE
25. | Macrognathus aculeatus FO -
26. | Mastacembelus armatus FO ~
P.K.L. Ng et al. (1994) subsequently published a selective list of
Singapore freshwater fishes which they believed were under threat, listing
18 as extinct and 17 as locally endangered species. Three species, Rasbora
paucisqualis (as R. bankanensis), Pangio semicincta and Glyptothorax fuscus
were listed as being probably extinct as there had been no recent records.
All three are relatively common species in southern Malaysia where they
are easily found in disturbed areas adjacent to forests. The failure to obtain
these species in Singapore for so many years is a good indication that they
are no longer extant.
Alfred (1966, 1968) believed that one species originally described
from Singapore, Hemibagrus elongatus, was extinct. Kottelat et al. (1998)
believe this species is actually a Chinese and Vietnamese one, and should
be excluded from the Singapore faunal list.
Family Cyprinidae
Rasbora paucisqualis Ahl
Since its rediscovery by Alfred (1966: 17 as Rasbora bankanensis), it has
not been seen again.
Family Cobitidae
Pangio semicincta (Fraser-Brunner)
Earlier identified as Pangio kuhlii (Alfred, 1966; P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1996:
111) under which P. semicincta was synonymised (Kottelat & Lim, 1993)
Diversity and conservation status of fishes 255
M. Kottelat (pers. comm.) now believes P. kuhilii is restricted to its type
locality in Java. The forms on Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula (and Singapore)
and Borneo are P. semicincta. This fish has not been encountered since
1966 and we believe that it is locally extinct.
Family Sisoridae
Glyptothorax fuscus Fowler
Previously referred to as Glyptothorax major by P.K.L. Ng & Lim (1996:
112). However, G. major appears to be restricted to Borneo, and is a
larger and more robust species. The local form should be called G. fuscus,
a species described from southeastern Thailand (H.H. Ng, pers. comm.).
There is an unconfirmed record of this fish in 1988 from a stream at
Seletar Reservoir Park on the outskirts of Nee Soon Swamp Forest (Richard
Yeong, pers. comm.). The specimen, however, was not retained.
Family Gobiidae
Pseudogobiopsis oligactis (Bleeker)
We have not been able to find Pseudogobiopsis oligactis in recent surveys.
All recent goby specimens collected from the Central Catchment Nature
Reserve and other inland freshwaters by the authors and their colleagues
have been the introduced Rhinogobius.
Pseudogobiopsis siamensis (Fowler)
There was only one record of this species from the Nee Soon Swamp
Forest area. Both Pseudogobiopsis oligactis and P. siamensis were
misidentified as Stigmatogobius poicilosoma by Alfred (1966).
Introduced Taxa
Fishes discussed under this section (Table 3) are present in the wild state
through human intervention. They may be foreign species, which are native
to South America or Africa, or even taxa that have been recorded as
indigenous fauna in the past and presently regarded as extinct as they were
not recorded by Alfred (1966) in his fairly thorough survey of the island’s
freshwater fish fauna. Their presence strongly indicates introduction by
human means (e.g., Hampala macrolepidota). The aquarium fish trade and
the food fish trade are the main contributors to the alien fish diversity in
Singapore. Many species have adapted well to conditions independent of
human husbandry, and have established self-sustaining populations in the
256 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
wild. However, their survival may not be long-term. For instance,
Rasborinus lineatus, which was once common in Singapore and occurred in
areas now under the Nature Reserves, appears to have died out (P.K.L.
Ng & Lim, 1996). The species listed have either established thriving
populations in the Nature Reserves, or have good potential of doing so as
they are found in similar habitats and occur naturally in neighbouring
areas.
Table 3. List of known introduced species and their status in Singapore.
(Status: CU = cultured, ES = escapee, FE = feral (established), NA = native,
EX = extinct
Use: AQ = aquarium fish, FF = food fish, IN = incidental (no use), PC = pest
control)
No. Species Status Use
Family OSTEOGLOSSIDAE
if Scleropages formosus FE? AQ
8 Osteoglossum bicirrhosum ES AQ
Family NOTOPTERIDAE
x Chitala ornata * FE? AQ
Family CYPRINIDAE
~ Amblypharyngodon chulabornae ES AQ?
5 Barbodes gonionotus CU i
6. Carasius auratus FE FF
7. Cirrhinus molitorella CU FF
8 Ctenopharyngodon idella CU
9. Cyprinus carpio PE AQ/FF
10. Esomus metallicus PE AQ
11. | Hampala macrolepidota BS? AQ?
12. Hypopthalmichthys molitrix CU PE
13. | Hypopthalmichthys nobilis CU FF
14. Leptobarbus hoeveni S 5 PE
15. Osteochilus hasselti FE? AQ?
16. Puntius binotatus FE AQ?
17. Puntius conchonius ES AQ
18. Puntius partipentazona FE AQ
19. Puntius semifasciolatus FE IN
20. Puntius tetrazona ES? AQ
21. Rasbora borapetensis FE AQ
22. Rasbora gracilis ES AQ
23. Rasbora trilineata ES AQ
24. Rasborinus lineatus EX IN
Diversity and conservation status of fishes
257
No. Species Status Use
Family CHARACIDAE
25. | Colossoma macropomum CU FF/AQ
26. | Paracheirodon innesi ES AQ
Family PANGASIIDAE
27. Pangasius hypophthalmus CU FF/AQ
Family PMELODIDAE
28. | Phractocephalus hemioliopterus * — ES AQ
Family CALLICHTHYIDAE
29. Corydoras aeneus ES AQ
Family LORICARITDAE
30. -Liposarcus pardalis FE AQ
Family POECILIIDAE
31. Poecilia reticulata FE AQ/PC
32. Poecilia sphenops FE AQ
33. — Poecilia latipinna FE? AQ
34. Xiphophorus helleri ES AQ
35. Xiphophorus maculatus FE? AQ
36. §Gambusia holbrookii rE AQ/PC
Family AMBASSIDAE
37. | Parambassis siamensis re AQ/IN
Family CICHLIDAE
38. Astronotus ocellatus ES AQ
39. — Cichla ocellaris FE? AQ
40. Oreochromis aureus ES FF
4]. Oreochromis mossambicus FE PE
42. Oreochromis niloticus ES FF
43. Thorichthys meeki ES AQ
44. = Tilapia zillii FE? FF
Family GOBIIDAE
45. Rhinogobius giurinus FE IN
Family OSPHRONEMIDAE
46. Betta splendens ES AQ
47. | Osphronemus goramy FE lat
48. § Sphaerichthys osphromenoides ES AQ
49. Trichogaster microlepis PE? AQ
50. Trichogaster pectoralis BPE FF
258 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
No. Species Status Use
Family CHANNIDAE
aL. Channa micropeltes CU/FE FE
Family MASTACEMBELIDAE
52. | Macrognathus siamensis ES AQ
* The Clown Knifefish, Chitala ornata, a native of Thailand, was reported from the
Sungei Seletar Reservoir where some ten examples were obtained (but not kept) by
rod and line in early 1998 (Tan Yit Wee, pers. comm.). There is a record of a 4 ft.
(25 kg) Red-tailed Catfish, Phractocephalus hemioliopterus, native to tropical South
America, fished off the Pandan River in 1996 (Lianhe Wanbao, 4 Aug. 1996: 4&8
with photographs). Being popular aquarium fish that attain large eventual sizes, they
may have been deliberately released when their owners could not cope.
Single individuals of Puntius conchonius (Cyprinidae) and
Macrognathus siamensis (Mastacembelidae) have been recorded from
streams in the CCNR. Specimens of Chinese major carps, for example,
Cyprinus carpio and Hypopthalmichthys nobilis, can sometimes be observed
in the reservoirs. These exotic species are frequently imported as food or
aquarium fish. Occasionally, individuals may be encountered in the wild
state, having escaped from ponds and cages, or released as unwanted
aquarium pets. However, there is no evidence of them having established
self-sustaining populations in the wild. They are therefore not included in
the list.
Family Osteoglossidae
Scleropages formosus (Miiller & Schlegel)
CCNR: Lower Peirce and MacRitchie Reservoirs.
Family Cyprinidae
Hampala macrolepidota Kuhl & van Hasselt
CCNR: Upper Peirce Reservoir (Robert Teo, pers. comm., in 1998).
Although it was considered extinct in Singapore (Alfred, 1966), the present
population seems most likely to be the result of deliberate introduction.
As this is a common fish in streams and lakes throughout Peninsular
Malaysia, it should adapt well to conditions in the Central Catchment
reservoirs.
Diversity and conservation status of fishes 259
Osteochilus hasselti (Valenciennes)
CCNR: stream at Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
Puntius partipentazona Fowler
CCNR: MacRitchie and Lower Peirce Reservoirs, and streams in Sime
Road forest. BINR: swamp along eastern boundary.
Puntius semifasciolatus (Giinther)
CCNR: stream in Sime Road forest, Lower Peirce Reservoir.
Puntius tetrazona (Bleeker)
CCNR: stream in Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
Rasbora borapetensis Smith
CCNR: stream in Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
Family Loricartidae
Liposarcus pardalis (Castelnau)
CCNR: Lower Peirce and Upper Seletar Reservoirs.
Family Poeciliidae
Gambusia holbrookii (Girard)
CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir.
Poecilia reticulata Peters .
CCNR and BTNR: present in exposed water bodies along peripheral areas.
Family Ambassidae
Parambassis siamensis (Fowler)
CCNR: Upper and Lower Peirce Reservoirs.
Family Cichlidae
Cichla ocellaris Bloch & Schneider
CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir.
Previously referred to as Cichla cf. monoculus (P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1997:
123). This popular game and aquarium fish originates from South America.
260 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters)
CCNR: present in all reservoirs and adjacent drainages.
Family Gobtidae
Rhinogobius giurinus (Rutter)
CCNR: Lower Peirce Reservoir, and a stream in the Upper Seletar
Reservoir Park.
This species is native to China and Japan.
Family Osphronemidae
Osphronemus goramy Lacépéde
CCNR: MacRitchie Reservoir.
Trichogaster pectoralis (Regan)
CCNR: Nee Soon Swamp Forest.
Family Channidae
Channa micropeltes (Cuvier)
CCNR: present in all reservoirs.
Conservation Status
The state of knowledge of Singapore’s freshwater biodiversity is generally
regarded as excellent (Kottelat & Whitten, 1996). This knowledge, together
with Singapore’s small size, makes conservation easier than is the case in
most Asian countries. Over the past two decades, the landscape of Singapore
has changed very drastically, and the pressures on natural fresh waters
have been great (P.K.L. Ng, 1991, 1994; P.K.L. Ng & Lam, 1995). Many
native species reported by Alfred (1966) have since become rare or perhaps
even extinct. P.K.L. Ng et al. (1994) listed 18 extinct and 17 locally
endangered species, and regarded three species as being possibly extinct.
Moreover, the flourishing aquarium [which accounted for over S$80 million
in 1994] (Ngiam, 1994; P.K.L. Ng & Tan, 1997) and food fish trade appear
to have contributed more foreign species to the local fauna by way of
deliberate or accidental introductions or escapees.
The list of extant native fish species known from Singapore thus now
stands at 35 (Table 1), whilst the number of extinct species is 26 (Table 2).
That is, 43% of Singapore’s known native fish fauna is now extinct. It is
Diversity and conservation status of fishes 261
important to note that 21 of the 35 extant indigenous fish species (60%)
are confined to waterways under forest cover. The five species that have
recently become extinct (Rasbora paucisqualis, Pangio semicincta,
Glyptothorax fuscus, Pseudogobiopsis oligactis and P. siamensis) were also
collected mainly from the Nature Reserves. This strongly suggests that the
loss of Singapore’s forest over the last 150 years has contributed substantially
to the loss of fish fauna on the island.
It is pertinent to note here that many of the extinct species are
actually large river species and there are doubts as to whether they were
actually found in Singapore at all. Many of these records are old [pre-
World War II] (Herre & Myers, 1937) and are unsubstantiated. Singapore
never had large rivers that could support large and typically riverine species
like Barbodes schwanenfeldii, Tor tambroides, Osteochilus melanopleura,
Labiobarbus festivus, Hampala macrolepidota (Cyprinidae), Micronema
micronema, Wallago leerii (Siluridae) and Hemibagrus nemurus (Bagridae),
and there is every chance that the specimens on which the old records are
based actually came from neighbouring Peninsular Malaysia.
Of the extant species, 21 of the 35 species are present only in the
Nature Reserves which illustrates the crucial importance of the Nature
Reserves for the contiuned existence of these species (Table 1). More
worrying is that the Nee Soon Swamp Forest has a disproportionately
large number of native species, which are only known from or have their
major populations there. Eight species (Puntius hexazona, Nemacheilus
selangoricus, Pangio shelfordii, Silurichthys hasselti, Pseudomystus rugosus,
Parakysis longirostris, Channa melasoma and Macrognathus maculatus)
are only known from this area while another three species (Rasbora
heteromorpha, Luciocephalus pulcher and Channa gachua) have their major
populations in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest (P.K.L. Ng & Lim, 1992). As it
now stands, with the Nee Soon Swamp Forest suffering from possible
excess drainage etc., some species would likely become extinct over the
next few decades. Prime candidates for extinction because of their
apparently fastidious habitat requirements and current low populations
would be Nemacheilus selangoricus, Pangio shelfordii, Silurichthys hasselti,
Pseudomystus rugosus and Parakysis longirostris. The threats to the native
freshwater fish are thus particularly serious as all of them are primary
freshwater species and most are very stenotopic in their habitat
requirements.
About 52 introduced species have been recorded in Singapore’s
freshwaters, 17 of which have established feral populations here (Table 3).
This is a substantial number, considering that Singapore’s extant indigenous
freshwater fish fauna is only 35 species. Despite the large proportion of
introduced fauna, it has not been shown that they have caused substantial
262 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
reduction in population size or the extinction of any native species (P.K.L.
Ng et al., 1993).
Acknowledgements
Many colleagues have assisted in documenting the present records over
the years. Thanks are especially due to Richard Yeong, Joseph Tan, Ng
Hock Ping, George Tay, C. M. Yang, Yeo Keng Loo, Lua Hui Keng,
Daphne Chung, Tommy Tan, Ng Heok Hee, Tan Heok Hui, Tan Swee
Hee, Oliver Chia, Darren Yeo, Adrian Ou, Tay Joe Boy, Tan Yit Wee,
Tay Hui Cheng, Serena Teo, Robert Teo, Cheryl Chia and R. Subharaj.
We have received a substantial amount of help and guidance from Maurice
Kottelat and Tyson Roberts on many aspects on fish taxonomy, and for
this, we are most grateful. Eric Alfred was responsible for providing the
original impetus for this paper and the many discusions and informal
conversations we have had proved most helpful in enabling it to come
together. Permission by the National Parks Board to carry out studies in
the Nature Reserves is much appreciated.
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Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 267-272.
The Conservation Status of Freshwater Prawns and Crabs
in Singapore with Emphasis on the Nature Reserves
PETER Kl. NG
Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research
Department of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore
Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260
Abstract
The freshwater prawn and crab fauna of Singapore are well studied, and 23 species have
been reported. Seven species of freshwater crabs are present, of which three species,
Parathelphusa reticulata (Parathelphusidae), /rmengardia johnsoni (Parathelphusidae), and
Johora singaporensis (Potamidae) are endemic to Singapore. Sixteen species of freshwater
prawns are known, but two species, Macrobrachium scabriculum and M. rosenbergii
(Palaemonidae) are now believed to be extinct. Eight species had originally been described
from Singapore. The possibility of species entering the catchment area through the import
of raw water into Singapore from Malaysia is discussed.
Introduction
The freshwater decapod prawns and crabs (Decapoda, Crustacea) of
Singapore have been studied intensely over the last 30 years, and are well
known by any standard (Ng, 1990). In a recent appraisal of the state of
freshwater biodiversity in Asia, Singapore was singled out as one country
in which its freshwater fauna was very well known and studied in depth
(Kottelat & Whitten, 1996).
The present paper is intended to review and provide a synopsis of
the extant and extinct freshwater decapod crustacean fauna of Singapore
with particular reference to the Nature Reserves. It will also examine how
the continued conservation of the remaining forests in the centre of the
island (i.e., the Nature Reserves) is critical for the long-term survival of
the majority of the extant decapod crustacean fauna.
State of the Prawn Fauna
The freshwater prawn and crab fauna of Singapore were recently reviewed
by Ng (1990), who recognised 24 species, of which 22 were regarded as
indigenous. Since then, three new species have been added to the fauna.
Choy and Ng (1991) described Caridina temasek, a species that was only
268 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
identified as Caridina sp. by Ng (1990). Ou and Yeo (1995) showed that
specimens which had been identified as Macrobrachium pilimanus by
Johnson (1961a) and Ng (1990) were actually new to science and named it
M. platycheles. Most recently, Yeo and Ng (1997) added Potamalpheops
amnicus, the first record of a freshwater snapping prawn (Alpheidae) from
Singapore. A total of 23 native species of freshwater decapod crustaceans
are thus now known from Singapore (Tables 1, 2).
Table 1. Extant Native Freshwater Decapod Crustaceans.
(EN = Endangered, CO = Common, FO = Forest waters, OP = Open waters, NSS
= Nee Soon Swamp Forest, BINR = Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, NR = Nature
Reserves (excluding NSS & BTNR), OA = Open areas, + = present, - = absent)
Species Status Habitat NSS BINR NR OA
Family POTAMIDAE
1. Johora singaporensis EN FO - + - -
Family PARATHELPHUSIDAE
2. Parathelphusa maculata CO FO/OP + - + ~
3. Parathelphusa reticulata EN FO + - - -
4. Irmengardia johnsoni EN FO + + ~ -
Family GRAPSIDAE
5. Varuna yui CO OP - . - -
6. | Geosesarma peraccae EN FO + + + -
7. Geosesarma nemesis EN FO - + - -
Family PALAEMONIDAE
8. | Macrobrachium malayanum CO FO ... + ~ + -
9. | Macrobrachium platycheles EN FO + - - -
10. Macrobrachium trompii EN FO + - + -
11. Macrobrachium sintangense CO OP/FO : - + +
12. Macrobrachium neglectum EN FO + - - -
13. Macrobrachium idae EN OP + - + -
14. Macrobrachium equidens CO OP - - - ~
Family ATYIDAE
15. Caridina temasek EN FO - - + -
16. Caridina gracilirostris EN FO/OP + - - -
17. Caridina propinqua CX3 FO/OP . - + +
18. Caridina simoni peninsularis EN FO/OP - - + +
19. Caridina tonkinensis EN FO/OP - - + =
20. Caridina weberi sumatrensis EN FO/OP - . ~ +
Family ALPHEIDAE
21. Potamalpheops amnicus EN FO - - + “
Conservation status of freshwater prawns and crabs 269
Two of the species (both palaemonids) are now regarded as extinct
(Table 2), representing about 9% of the total known native fauna.
Macrobrachium scabriculum has not been reported since early this century
and must be regarded as extinct (Johnson, 1961a). The specimens on which
this record was based were recently re-examined and their identity was
confirmed (Y. Cai, pers. comm.). The extinction of the well known Giant
Prawn or Udang Galah, M. rosenbergii, is a more recent phenomenon, as
juveniles were still seen as late as 1985 in the streams draining into Nee
Soon (Ng, 1990). This area is now very disturbed, with the lower stretches
highly polluted. No individuals have, however, been seen or recorded since,
and the species is now regarded as extinct. Both these species have small
eggs and pelagic larvae that develop in estuarine and coastal areas, with
the young prawns having to swim upstream to their adult habitats. Pollution,
concretisation and changes in almost all estuarine areas in Singapore mean
that the survival of these species is doubtful. The same problems are also
faced by two other species, Macrobrachium neglectum and M. idae. Both
species were still relatively common in the early 1980s in streams outside
the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, but they have become very rare in recent
years. Both species have small eggs and pelagic larvae that must develop
downstream. The loss and/or modification of downstream habitats have
apparently contributed to their population decrease, and both species are
likely to become extinct in the near future, regardless of how much of our
forests are conserved.
Table 2. Extinct Freshwater Decapod Crustaceans of Singapore.
(FO = Forest waters, OP = Open waters, LRF = large river fauna, + = present,
- = absent)
Species Habitat LRF
Family PALAEMONIDAE
1. Macrobrachium scabriculum OP/FO -
2. Macrobrachium rosenbergii OP/FO +
For the three atyid shrimps, Caridina simoni peninsularis, C.
tonkinensis and C. weberi sumatrensis, none has been collected from
Singapore waters since the reports by Johnson (1961a, b) and they might
no longer be extant. If they are present, they should be regarded as highly
endangered. All three are freshwater species that have their larval
development linked to estuarine areas as well.
270 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Of the extant shrimp species, most of the endangered species have
direct or semi-abbreviated larval developments, that is, they can complete
their development within the waters of the catchment area. Of these, the
two most vulnerable species are Macrobrachium platycheles and M. trompii.
Macrobrachium platycheles is known only from the forested, faster flowing
streams in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, whilst M. trompii only occurs in
the more acidic waters of the same swamp.
State of the Crab Fauna
Of the freshwater crabs, Varuna yui is a eurytopic species that is essentially
a marine crab that can live in freshwater. Of the true freshwater crabs (1.e.,
species that have semi- to completely abbreviated larval development), all
species are threatened to various degrees by ongoing and potential habitat
loss.
Of the six extant wholly freshwater species, three (Parathelphusa
maculata, Geosesarma peraccae and G. nemesis) are also common in
Peninsular Malaysia, with P. maculata and G. peraccae still relatively
common in Singapore in some areas at the edge of the catchment area.
Three species, /. johnsoni, P. reticulata and J. singaporensis, are endemic
to Singapore (Ng, 1988, 1989). Studies of neighbouring areas (e.g., southern
Malaysia and Riau Archipelago) have revealed allied but clearly different
species that strongly support the consensus that these three species are
true Singapore endemics.
The most vulnerable of these three is P. reticulata, which is known
only from a small patch of swamp in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest (Ng &
Lim, 1992). Johora singaporensis is known only from Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve and a small stream at the edge of the catchment area (near Bukit
Batok Nature Park). The main population is in Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve, where it is now threatened by the gradual drying up of the streams
there (Ng, 1995). Although no freshwater crab species is yet known to
have become extinct in Singapore, P. reticulata and J. singaporensis are the
most likely candidates in the decades ahead due to their stenotopic habitat
requirements and restricted ranges.
Note on Introductions
There are some problems with a few species that are now still regarded as
native. The shrimps Caridina temasek and Potamalpheops amnicus are
known only from one stretch of Sime Road in the Central Catchment
Nature Reserve, an area in which raw, untreated water from Johor is
Conservation status of freshwater prawns and crabs Zi
regularly pumped in to supplement the water stock in the reservoirs. It is
possible that these two shrimps may have entered Singapore this way. It is
pertinent to note that both shrimps are small species (up to 10 mm in
length) and the adults or young could have easily crossed the filters normally
placed in water pipes. The two shrimps had not been listed in any of the
earlier works on Singapore shrimps by Johnson (1960, 1961a, b), and both
species can be common in parts of western Johor (Yeo & Ng, 1997), from
where much of Singapore’s water comes.
There is as yet, however, no compelling evidence that the two species
are definitely not part of Singapore’s original fauna, as the habitats for
both taxa are not very specific. In addition, P. amnicus is a very difficult
species to collect by normal methods as it is not only very small (and
therefore easily mistaken for the young of other common prawns) but it
also lives deep in burrows in eroded banks (Yeo & Ng, 1997). This species
could thus have been missed by earlier workers. For the moment, it seems
best to regard them as part of Singapore’s extant native fauna.
With regards to introduced crustacean species in Singapore, there
appears to be no obvious problems for the native fauna at present. This is
probably due to the fact that the majority of the extant native species are
forest inhabitants living in softer and more acidic waters, while successful
introductions have mainly been more open-country and hard water species
(Ng et al., 1993).
References
Choy, S.C. & P.K.L. Ng. 1991. A new species of freshwater atyid shrimp,
Caridina temasek (Decapoda: Caridea: Atyidae) from Singapore. Raffles
Bulletin of Zoology. 39: 265-277.
Johnson, D.S. 1960. Sub-specific and infra-specific variation in some
freshwater prawns of the Indo-Pacific region. Proceedings of the
Centenary and bicentenary Congress of Biology, Singapore. pp. 170-181.
Johnson, D.S. 1961a. A synopsis of the Decapoda Caridea and Stenopodidea
of Singapore, with notes on their distribution and a key to the genera of
Caridea occuring in Malayan waters. Bulletin of the National Museum,
Singapore. 30: 44-79.
Johnson, D.S. 1961b. Notes on the freshwater Crustacea of Malaya. I. The
Atyidae. Bulletin of the National Museum, Singapore. 26: 120-153.
Kottelat, M. & A.J. Whitten. 1996. Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia with
special reference to Fish. World Bank Technical Paper No. 343. pp. 59.
272 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Ng, P.K.L. 1988. The Freshwater Crabs of Peninsular Malaysia and
Singapore. Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore.
Ng, P.K.L. 1989. Endemic freshwater crabs in Singapore: discovery,
speciation and conservation. Singapore Institute of Biology Bulletin.
13: 45-51.
Ng, P.K.L. 1990. The freshwater crabs and prawns of Singapore. In: L.M.
Chou & P.K.L. Ng (eds.). Essays in Zoology. Department of Zoology,
National University of Singapore. pp. 189-204.
Ng, P.K.L. 1995. Freshwater decapod crustaceans. In: S.C. Chin, R.T.
Corlett, Y.C. Wee & S.Y. Geh (eds.). Rain Forest in the City: Bukit
Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. Suppl.
3: 151-157.
Ng, P.K.L. & K.K.P. Lim. 1992. The conservation status of the Nee Soon
Freshwater Swamp Forest of Singapore. Aquatic Conservation: Marine
and Freshwater Ecosystems. 2: 255-266.
Ng, P.K.L, L.M. Chou & T.J. Lam. 1993. The status and impact of
introduced freshwater animals in Singapore. Biological Conservation.
64: 19-24. |
Ou, A.C.T. & D.C.J. Yeo. 1995. A new species of freshwater prawn,
Macrobrachium platycheles (Decapoda: Caridea: Palaemonidae) from
Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 43: 299-
308.
Yeo, D.C.J. & P.K.L. Ng. 1997. The alpheid shrimp genus Potamalpheops
Powell, 1979 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Caridea: Alpheidae) from Southeast
Asia, with descriptions of three new species. Journal of Natural History.
31: 163-190.
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 273-296.
Butterfly Biodiversity in Singapore with Particular
Reference to the Central Catchment Nature Reserve
S.K. KHEW! AND STEVEN S.H. NEO?
'103, Tai Keng Gardens, Singapore 535384
*Blk 16, Simei Street 1, #05-13, Melville Park, Singapore 529942
Abstract
A total of 381 butterfly species have now been recorded in Singapore of which 18 are new
records since 1990. Of this total, 236 species (62%) were recorded during the present
survey. All except 8 (3%) of these occur within the Nature Reserves and 148 (63%) were
recorded only within the Nature Reserves. A total of 74 species (31%) within the Reserves
were considered very rare.
Introduction
The study of butterflies by amateurs is not new, and indeed, it is through
the observations of these dedicated individuals that much important data
have been accumulated over the years. The information on butterfly
biodiversity in Singapore is, at most, sketchy. Most of the documentation
of the species occurred done during the post-war years until the late 1960s.
From our literature research, two references stand out: W.A. Fleming’s
Butterflies of West Malaysia and Singapore (1991) and Steven Corbet and
Maurice Pendlebury’s Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula (1992). Although
the latest editions of the two reference books were published in the early
1990s, most of the updates referred only to the Peninsular Malaysia.
Collating data from these reference books, the last known total species
count for Singapore Island was 363 (Corbet & Pendlebury, 1992).
Only recently has a concerted effort been made to study and establish
the status of butterfly biodiversity in Singapore. This paper presents our
observations and findings with particular reference to the Central Catchment
Nature Reserve. With continued support from the National Parks Board
there is an opportunity to undertake a long-term butterfly biodiversity
survey in Singapore so that the knowledge of the status of species of
butterflies will increase and a greater understanding of these beautiful
creatures will be established.
Methods
Field surveys were conducted from 1990 to 1997 in and around various
274 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
areas in Singapore. In particular, many of the surveys were concentrated
within and around the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. For the surveys,
we used a simple method of selecting sites based on available information
of known or marked routes. Field surveys were based on visual identification
but where necessary, specimens were captured for closer inspection and
subsequently released, or were kept in a reference collection. Where
possible, the number of individuals was noted, and other observations like
male/female or special activities were also documented. However, it should
be noted that for two of the families, Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae, there
are limitations to field identification, and even in a set reference collection,
the correct identification of certain species may be difficult. Whilst all
attempts have been made to identify the species correctly, it is hoped that
the data from future surveys and scientific studies will provide opportunities
for counterchecking and confirmation.
Results and Discussion
To establish a reference database on the butterfly biodiversity in Singapore,
a comprehensive checklist of the species observed during the last seven
years has been compiled (Table 1). Of the 363 species previously known
species in Singapore, a total of 218 (or 60%) was accounted for. A further
18 new records were observed, making a total of 236 extant species
(Appendix 1). Not all species were located within the Central Catchment
Nature Reserves.
Summary Analysis by Family
About 60% of the species previously identified as existing in Singapore
can still be found. Many of the larger and showy species are still evident,
although some species are extremely rare with only a few individuals
observed. The family Papilionidae (Plate la—f) is currently represented by
13 species in Singapore. It can be safely concluded that two species, Malayan
Birdwing Troides amphrysus ruficollis and Great Blue Mime Chilasa
paradoxa aenigma, recorded earlier have since become extinct. A surprising
find is Blue Helen Papilio prexaspes prexaspes. It is highly unlikely that
the earlier authors missed such a large butterfly. We can only speculate
that the species has migrated south from Peninsular Malaysia and has
since established a small colony.
The family Pieridae seems to have suffered a significant drop in
biodiversity over the years. Only 15 out of the original 23 species still
survive in Singapore. However, the Eurema species, particularly, Common
Butterfly biodiversity 212
Table 1. Survey of Butterfly Biodiversity — Species Count.
Extant Total
no. of | recorded
survey species
period
bid deals
Nn
—
(oo) Ngo ove ly)
Nn
Nn
=
—l
— Oo Nn —
Oo
=>
ions
Eda
Leltiy
sills
aul
Shot
pmiaahar
HES
Nn
18 236 381
Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe contubernalis enjoys the distinction of being
the most common butterfly in Singapore and can often be found in
abundance.
The family Nymphalidae is represented by 5 subfamilies in Singapore.
A total of 13 species of the subfamily Danainae (Plate 2a—b) can still be
found in Singapore. Most of these species can often be found swarming
around flowering trees, e.g., Syzygium spp. (Myrtaceae) in the Nature
Reserves. One species, Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus chrysippus (Plate
2b) is decidedly local and can be found only in a few suburban locations.
The subfamily Satyrinae (Plate 2c, d) records a healthy 94% of the original
species known to exist in Singapore. Furthermore, one new record
Mycalesis perseoides perseoides has been added to the Singapore checklist.
Of notable interest is E/ymnias penanga penanga, which still survives but
only on Pulau Ubin. Most of the species in this subfamily feed on grasses,
276 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
bamboo, palms and other monocotyledons. Five of the original seven of
the subfamily Morphinae still exist in Singapore, although most are forest
butterflies that have become quite rare. As many of the species are attracted
to fruit bait, it would be interesting to conduct bait trap experiments to
establish the density of these species. Dark Blue Jungle Glory Thaumantis
kKlugius lucipor is one of the most beautiful butterflies in the region,
comparable to the Morpho of South America. The life history of the
species is still unknown, although we suspect that it feeds on rattan or
another palm. The subfamily Nymphalinae (Plate 3a—c) records a total of
37 of the original 51 species that existed in Singapore. The majority of the
species can be found in the nature reserves. It is interesting to note that we
have observed four new records, Lace Sergeant Athyma pravara helma,
Plain Lacewing Cethosia penthesilia methypsea, Neptis harita harita and
Lexias dirtea merguia (Plate 3c) for Singapore. One species, Neptis harita
harita is restricted in distribution, and can only be found in the Mandai
area. It is likely that this species migrated from Malaysia in recent years
and the colony in Singapore is highly dependent on a hitherto unknown
food plant somewhere in the northern part of Singapore. Only two of the
original five species of the subfamily Charaxinae (Plate 3d) have been
observed in Singapore recently. Both species are rather rare and are not
often seen. Although the Blue Nawab Polyura schreiber tisamenus, is known
to feed on leaves of the common rambutan, it has become extremely rare,
as the food plant has seen a significant loss in popularity as a garden fruit
tree in recent years, and also there have been severe changes in its favoured
habitat.
The family Lycaenidae (Plates 4a—d, Sa—c) includes the largest number
of species in both Malaysia and Singapore. Of the originally recorded 159
species, we have observed only 77 to date. However, many of the species
in this family are difficult to identify with certainty, particularly in the
genera Arhopala, Jamides, Allotinus and Nacaduba. Further intensive
research and field collection would probably yield a greater number of
species that have not been recorded in recent years.
Finally, the family Hesperiidae (Plate S5d—e), with 41 of the original
69 species found in Singapore, may also yield more species when more
collecting data are available. It is interesting to note that we have discovered
a total of seven new records for Singapore — the highest number of new
records amongst the five butterfly families in Singapore.
Some Observations on Singapore Butterflies and Their Host Plants
The interrelation between butterflies and their caterpillar host plants cannot
Butterfly biodiversity S|
be understated. Many species depend solely on one particular species of
plant and will obviously become extinct, if the host plant is no longer
available.
Interestingly, the adaptation of certain species is remarkable, in that
due to some evolutionary process, these species have been found to feed
on other plants. One such case is the species Common Faun Faunis canens
arcesilas. From established literature (Corbet & Pendlebury, 1992), this
species was reported to feed on a species of wild banana (Musa sp.).
However, we have discovered that the species in Singapore feeds on Fish
Tail Palm (Caryota mitis, Arecaceae).
Another species, The Common Tit Hypolycaena erylus teatus (Plate
5c), was known to feed on Vangueria spinosa (Rubiaceae) and
Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae), (Corbet & Pendlebury, 1992). However,
we made a Startling find here in Singapore, when we discovered the
caterpillars of this species, feeding on Javanese Ixora (/xora javanica,
Rubiaceae), planted at the road shoulder along busy Victoria Street in
downtown Singapore!
Eurema species, on the other hand, have been found on several
types of Leguminosae such as Cassia, Acacia, Caesalpinia and Albizia. The
species’ versatility in their host plants seem to explain why they are often
abundant in many areas in Singapore. It is interesting to note that the
species Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe contubernalis, does. not
seem to have any preference for large- or small-leafed plants. We have
seen a female of the species lay her eggs on both Peacock Flower
(Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Leguminosae) and Seven Golden Candlesticks
(Cassia alata, Leguminosae) planted in adjacent pots. The caterpillars were
bred to adulthood with no apparent difference or distinction in size or
colouration.
Orange Emigrant Catopsilia scylla scylla appears to be confined to
urban areas where its host plant, Cassia biflora, is grown as a roadside
tree. It is not unusual to find the butterfly, which is fast on the wing,
darting between the rush hour traffic along Shenton Way. We have not
encountered this species in the Nature Reserves.
Some Observations on Habitats and Feeding Preferences of
Singapore Butterflies
Many butterflies species that we recorded during the surveys were observed
whilst feeding. Favourite flowering bushes of many species of butterflies
are Prickly Lantana (Lantana camara, Verbenaceae), Singapore
Rhododendron (Melastoma malabathricum, Melastomataceae), Common
278 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Asystasia (Asystasia gangetica spp. micrantha, Acanthaceae), Mile-a-Minute
(Mikania micrantha, Compositae) and Common Snakeweed (Stachytarpheta
indica, Verbenaceae). Occasionally, we encountered a flowering tree in
the Nature Reserves, which was literally swarmed with butterflies. Some
of the Syzygium species when in full bloom are particularly attractive to
butterflies. Species of the families Papilionidae, Pieridae and Nymphalidae
are attracted to roadside seepages and damp muddy banks where they
imbibe the liquid nutrients from the ground.
Many species are also attracted to rotting fruit like pineapple, papaya
and banana and certain species of butterflies feed on rotting fruits of figs
(Ficus spp.) on the forest floor. Of particular interest is the Dark Blue
Jungle Glory Thaumantis klugius lucipor, one of the most beautiful species
of the Morphinae subfamily, which is reported to avoid fruit bait (Corbet
& Pendlebury, 1992). However, we have observed an individual female of
this species feeding on the rotting berries on the forest floor. This suggests
that it can be captured with a bait trap, provided that its preferred menu is
offered.
Several species of the subfamily Danainae are attracted to dried
plants of Indian Heliotrope (Heliotropium indicum, Boraginaceae).
Conclusions
Although the biodiversity of butterflies in Singapore may be considered
fair, a number of species observed were represented by only a single
specimen. There is cause for more effort on the conservation of remaining
nature reserves in Singapore to maintain what is left of the flora on which
the butterflies depend on for survival. As studies on identifying the host
plants for the different species of butterflies is far from complete, it is
necessary to conserve as much plant biodiversity in the Nature Reserves as
possible.
For the known host plants, it would be useful to identify possible
locations where these species may be planted without danger of being
sprayed with pesticides and other chemicals that are harmful to the
caterpillars and egg-laying females. Whilst the Nature Reserves would be
the obvious choice for establishing these plants, urban and suburban areas
may also be considered. Some examples of roadside trees e.g., Cassia fistula,
Cassia biflora, Cerbera odollam (Apocynaceae) and others are already
supporting certain species in the public housing areas. “Butterfly gardens”
could be incorporated into school ecogardens, government-owned premises
such as bin centres, power substations and other utility buildings — where
the plants could be cultivated and left to be eaten by the caterpillars without
Butterfly biodiversity 279
too much concern for the aesthetic appearance of the plants themselves.
Even a small area of the Singapore Botanical Gardens could be set aside
to cultivate insecticide-free host plants.
If the cultivation of host plants is more widespread, there will also
need to be adequate flowering plants to support the adult butterflies. In
this case, there is less concern about where these flowering plants could be
grown. In fact, our parks and green areas are ideal for planting /xora,
Lantana camara, and other nectar-rich flowering plants that the adult
butterflies depend on for sustenance.
There is also scope for a pilot study on the re-introduction of some
of the more spectacular species of butterflies that have become extinct in
Singapore. For example, we could import the pupae of the “birdwing”
species Malayan Birdwing Troides amphrysus ruficollis and release the
adult butterflies in areas where its food plant Dutchman’s Pipe Aristolochia
tagala, is cultivated and monitor the survival rate of the species. As the
host plant is indigenous, it does no threat to Singapore’s flora. However,
care must be taken to ensure that the re-introduction will not be at the
expense of existing species of butterflies which share the same host plant.
There is still much to learn and do, and we hope that this paper will
help in a small way to increase the knowledge of our butterflies and to
help preserve them for Singapore’s future generations.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the National Parks Board, in particular Dr Lena Chan
and Ms Sharon Chan and their staff for their encouragement and support
in the butterfly surveys and for making constructive suggestions in our
pursuit of knowledge of these beautiful insects. We would also like to
thank the following members of the Butterfly Watching and Research
Group of the Nature Society (Singapore), Ms Andrea Hoffmann, Mr Gan
Cheong Weei, Miss Sabrina Tan, Mr Koh Keow Chai, Mr Simon Chan and
Mr Andrew Tay for their assistance in collecting data in the field.
References
Corbet, A.S. & H.M. Pendlebury. 1992. The Butterflies of the Malay
Peninsula. Revised by J.N. Eliot. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia. Forth edition.
Fleming, W.A. 1991. Butterflies of West Malaysia and Singapore. Longman
Malaysia Sdn Bhd., Malaysia. Second edition.
280 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Foo, T.S. 1985. A Guide to the Wildflowers of Singapore. Singapore Science
Centre, Singapore.
Neo, S.S.H. 1996. A Guide to Common Butterflies of Singapore. Singapore
Science Centre, Singapore.
Polunin, I. 1987. Plants and Flowers of Singapore. Times Editions,
Singapore.
——
Butterfly biodiversity 281
Appendix 1. Checklist of Butterflies in Singapore.
Legend for Status
Very Rare - An average of 1—5 individuals observed per year
Rare - An average of 6-20 individuals observed per year
Common - An average of 21—50 individuals observed per year
Very Common - An average of 51 or more individuals observed per year
Legend for Habitat
A
Z,
3.
4
Not present in the Nature Reserves
. Present in the Reserves and other Locations Outside the Nature Reserves
Present Only in the Nature Reserves
. Largely Confined to the Reserves with an Occasional Record Outside the
Nature Reserves
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
Family PAPILIONIDAE — Subfamily PAPILIONINAE
1. Chilasa clytia clytia Common Mime Rare Z
2. Graphium agamemnon agamemnon Tailed Green Jay Common 2
3. Graphium evemon eventus - Very Common 4
4. Graphium sarpedon luctatius Common Bluebottle VeryCommon 4
5. Pachliopta aristolochiae asteris Common Rose Rare 2
6. Papilio demoleus malayanus Lime Butterfly Very Common 2
7. Papilio demolion demolion Banded Swallowtail Rare 2
8. Papilio iswara iswara Great Helen Rare 3
9. Papilio memnon agenor Great Mormon Common 2
10. Papilio polytes romulus Common Mormon Very Common 2
11. Papilio prexaspes prexaspes Blue Helen Very Rare 3
12. Pathysa antiphates itamputi Five Bar Swordtail Rare 8
13. Troides helena cerberus Common Birdwing Rare 2
Chilasa paradoxa aenigma Great Blue Mime Extinct
Troides amphrysus ruficollis Malayan Birdwing Extinct
Family PIERIDAE — Subfamily PIERINAE
14. Appias libythea olferna Striped Albatross Very Common 2
15. Appias lyncida vasava*"' Chocolate Albatross Very Rare 2
16. Delias hyparete metarete Painted Jezebel Very Common 2
17. Delias pasithoe parthenope*? - Very Rare 1
18. Leptosia nina malayana Psyche Rare Z
19. Pieris canidia malayica Cabbage White Common l
Appias nero figulna Orange Albatross Extinct
Cepora iudith malaya Orange Gull Extinct
Delias singhapura singhapura - Extinct
Pareronia valeria lutescens Wanderer Extinct
Saletara liberia distanti Malayan Albatross —_ Extinct
No.
Species
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Common Name
Status
Family PIERIDAE — Subfamily COLIADINAE
Catopsilia pomona pomona
Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe
Catopsilia scylla scylla
Eurema andersonii andersonii
Eurema blanda snelleni
Eurema hecabe contubernalis
Eurema sari sodalis
Eurema simulatrix tecmessa
Gandaca harina distanti
Dercas verhuelli herodorus
Eurema ada iona
Eurema brigitta senna
Common Emigrant
Mottled Emigrant
Orange Emigrant
Three Spot Grass
Yellow
Common Grass
Yellow
Chocolate Grass
Yellow
Tree Yellow
Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily DANAINAE
Danaus chrysippus chrysippus*?
Danaus genutia genutia
Danaus melanippus hegesippus
Euploea camaralzeman malayica**
Euploea crameri bremeri
Euploea eyndhovii gardineri
Euploea midamus singapura
Euploea mulciber mulciber
Euploea phaenareta castelnaui
Euploea radamanthus radamanthus
Idea stolli logani
Ideopsis vulgaris macrina
Parantica agleoides agleoides
Euploea eunice lencogonis
Euploea tulliolus ledereri
Idea leuconoe chersonesia
Ideopsis gaura perakana
Parantica aspasia aspasia
Plain Tiger
Common Tiger
Black Veined Tiger
Malayan Crow
Spotted Black Crow
Striped Black Crow
Spotted Blue Crow
Striped Blue Crow
King Crow
Magpie Crow
Common Tree
Nymph
Blue Glassy Tiger
Dark Glassy Tiger
Blue Branded King
Crow
Dwarf Crow
White Tree Nymph
Lesser WoodNymph
Yellow Glassy Tiger
Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily SATYRINAE
Elymnias hypermnestra agina
Elymnias panthera panthera
Elymnias penanga penanga*°
Lethe europa malaya
Melanitis leda leda
Common Palmfly
Tawny Palmfly
Bamboo Tree Brown
Common Evening
Brown
Very Common
Rare
Common
Rare
Very Common
Very Common
Very Common
Very Common
Common
Extinct
Extinct
Extinct
Very Rare
Common
Rare
Very Rare
Rare
Rare
Rare
Common
Common
Common
Common
Very Common
Very Common
Common
Extinct
Extinct
Extinct
Extinct
Very Common
Rare
Very Rare
Very Rare
Rare
Habitat
NW rR dw dO
WwW hNM HM FW HW NM KWH LY
Oo NM bY
bo WR WB bd
Butterfly biodiversity
285
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
47. Mycalesis fusca fusca Malayan Bush Rare 5)
Brown )
48. Mycalesis mineus macromalayana Dark Brand Bush Very Common 2
Brown
49. Mycalesis orseis nautilus Purple Bush Brown Rare 3
50. Mycalesis perseoides perseoides . Rare 2
51. Mycalesis perseus cepheus - Common 2
52. Mycalesis visala phamis - Rare 8
53. Orsotriaena medus cinerea Nigger Very Common 2
54. Ypthima baldus newboldi Common Five Ring Common 2
55. Ypthima fasciata torone*® - Very Rare 3
56. Ypthima horsfieldi humei*’ : Very Rare 3
57. Ypthima huebneri © Common Four Ring VeryCommon 4
58. Ypthima pandocus corticaria Common Three Very Common 2
Ring
Elymnias esaca esaca : Extinct
Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily MORPHINAE
59. Amathusia phidippus phidippus Palm King Rare +
60. Discophora sondaica despoliata** Very Rare 5
61. Faunis canens arcesilas Common Faun Common 3
62. Thaumantis klugius lucipor Dark Blue Jungle Very Rare 3
Glory
63. Zeuxidia amethystus amethystus Saturn Common 3
Thaumantis noureddin noureddin Dark Jungle Glory — Extinct
Zeuxidia doubledayi doubledayi - Extinct
Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily NYMPHALINAE
64. Athyma asura idita - Very Rare 3
65. Athyma kanwa kanwa - Very Rare 3
66. Athyma nefte subrata Colour Sergeant Rare 3
67. Athyma pravara helma Lance Sergeant Very Rare 3
68. Athyma reta moorei - Very Rare 3
69. Cethosia hypsea hypsina Malay Lacewing Very Common 4
70. Cethosia penthesilia methypsea*° Plain Lacewing Very Rare 2
71. Chersonesia peraka peraka*"” . Very Rare 3
72. Cirrochroa orissa orissa Banded Yeoman Very Rare 3
73. Cupha erymanthis lotis Rustic Rare 3
74. Eulaceura osteria kumana - Very Common 3
75. Euripus nyctelius euploeoides Courtesan Rare 5
76. Euthalia aconthea gurda Baron Very Rare 2
77. Euthalia adonia pinwilli . Very Rare 3
78. Euthalia monina monina Malay Baron Common 8
79. Hypolimnas anomala anomala Malayan Egefly Very Common 2
80. Hypolimnas bolina bolina Great Egefly Very Common 4
81. Hypolimnas misippus misippus*!! - Very Rare 3
284
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
82. Junonia almana javana Peacock Pansy Rare 2
83. Junonia atlites atlites Grey Pansy Rare 2
84. Junonia hedonia ida Chocolate Pansy Very Common 2
85. Junonia orithya wallacei Blue Pansy Common 2
86. Lasippa heliodore dorelia - Rare 3
87. Lasippa tiga siaka Burmese Lascar Common 3
88. Lebadea martha parkeri Knight Rare -
89. Lexias canescens pardalina - Very Rare 3
90. Lexias dirtea merguia Rare 3
91. Lexias pardalis dirteana Archduke Very Common 3
92. Moduza procris milonia Commander Very Common 3
93. Neptis harita harita*” - Rare 3
94. Neptis hylas papaja Common Sailor Rare 4
95. Neptis leucoporos cresina - Very Common 3
96. Pandita sinope sinope - Rare 3
97. Pantoporia hordonia Common Lascar Rare 3
98. Pantoporia paraka paraka - Rare 3
99. Phaedyma columella singa Short Banded Sailor Common 2
100. Phalantha phalantha phalantha Leopard Common 2
101. Tanaecia iapis puseda Horsfield’s Baron Common 3
102. Tanaecia pelea pelea Malay Viscount Very Common 4
103. Terinos terpander robertsia Royal Assyrian Rare 3
104. Vindula dejone erotella Cruiser Very Common 3
Ariadne ariadne ariadne Angled Castor Extinct
Athyma perius perius Common Sergeant Extinct
Bassarona teuta goodrichi Banded Marquis Extinct
Chersonesia rahria rahria Wavy Maplet Extinct
Dophla evelina compta - Extinct
Euthalia djata rubidifascia - Extinct
Euthalia merta merta - Extinct
Neptis miah batara - Extinct
Pantoporia aurelia aurelia - Extinct
Pantoporia dindinga : Extinct
Pantoporia sandaka sandaka - Extinct
Parthenos sylvia lilacinus Clipper Extinct
Tanaecia godartii puloa Malay Count Extinct
Vagrans egista macromalayana Vagrant Extinct
Family NYMPHALIDAE — Subfamily CHARAXINAE
105. Polyura hebe plautus - Rare 3
106. Polyura schreiber tisamenus Blue Nawab Very Rare 3
Charaxes bernadus crepax Tawny Rajah Extinct
Polyura moori moor - Extinct
Prothoe franck uniformis - Extinct
Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily RIODININAE
107. Abisara geza niya - Rare 3
Butterfly biodiversity
285
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
108. Abisara savitri savitri - Rare 3
109. Laxita thuisto thuisto Lesser Harlequin Rare 3
Abisara saturata kausambioides Malayan Plum Judy —_ Extinct
Taxila haquinus haquinus Harlequin Extinct
Zemeros flegyas albipunctatus Punchinello Extinct
Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily PORITIINAE
110. Poritia philota philota - Very Rare 3
111. Poritia sumatrae sumatrae Sumatran Gem Rare 3
Simiskina phalia potina Blue Brilliant Extinct
Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily MILETINAE
112. Allotinus unicolor unicolor Lesser Darkie Rare 3
113. Logania marmorata damis - Rare 3
114. Miletus biggsti biggsii Bigg’s Brownie Common 2
115. Miletus gopara gopara - Rare 3
116. Miletus symethus petronius*'* - Rare 3
117. Spalgis epius epius : Very Rare 2
Allotinus davidis . Extinct
Allotinus horsfieldi nessus - Extinct
Allotinus strigatus malayanus ; Extinct
Allotinus substrigosus substrigosus Extinct
Allotinus subviolaceus alkamah Extinct
Liphyra brassolis abbreviata The Moth Butterfly Extinct
Miletus gaesa gaesa - Extinct
Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily CURETINAE
118. Curetis santana malayica Malayan Sunbeam Common 2
119. Curetis saronis sumatrana*"* - Very Rare 1
Curetis bulis stigmata - Extinct
Curetis regula - Extinct
Curetis sperthis sperthis : Extinct
Family LYCAENIDAE — Subfamily LYCAENINAE
120. Acytolepis puspa lambi Common Hedge Common 3
Blue
121. Anthene emolus goberus Ciliate Blue Rare 4
122. Anthene lycaenina miya - Rare ~
123. Arhopala abseus abseus - Rare 3
124. Arhopala aedias agnis Large Metallic Oak Rare 4
Blue
125. Arhopala ammon ammon - Very Rare 3
126. Arhopala amphimuta amphimuta - Very Rare 3
127. Arhopala antimuta antimuta - Rare 3
128. Arhopala athada athada - Rare 3
129. Arhopala atosia malayana Tailed Disc Oak Very Rare 3
Blue
286
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
130. Arhopala aurea - Rare 3
131. Arhopala epimuta epiala - Rare 3
132.. Arhopala major major - Rare 3
133. Arhopala myrzala lammas - Very Rare 3
134. Arhopala pseudocentaurus nakula : Rare 2
135. Arhopala pseudomuta pseudomuta Raffles’ Oak Blue Rare 3
136. Arhopala trogon*? . Very Rare 3
137. Caleta elna elvira Elbowed Pierrot Rare 3
138. Castalius rosimon rosimon*'® - Very Rare 3
139. Catochrysops panormus exiguus*" Silver Forget-Me- Very Rare 1
Not
140. Catochrysops strabo strabo - Very Rare 3
141. Cheritra freja friggia Common Imperial Very Rare 3
142. Chilades pandava pandava Cycad Blue Common a3
143. Deudorix epijarbas cinnabarus Cornelian Rare 3
144. Drupadia ravindra moorei Common Posy Common 3
145. Drupadia rufotaenia rufotaenia*"* - Very Rare 3
146. Drupadia theda thesmia Dark Posy Very Rare 3
147. Eooxylides tharis distanti Branded Imperial Very Common 3
148. Euchrypsos cnejus cnejus Gram Blue Common 3
149. Everes lacturnus rileyi Indian Cupid Very Rare 1
150. Flos anniella anniella - Very Rare S
151. Flos apidanus saturatus - Rare 3
152. Flos diardi capeta - Rare 3
153. Flos fulgida singhapura - Rare 3
154. Horaga syrinx maenala*”” - Very Rare 4
155. Hypolycaena erylus teatus Common Tit Common 4
156. Hypolycaena thecloides thecloides - Very Rare +
157. Ionolyce helicon merguiana Pointed Line Blue Common 3
158. Iraota distanti distanti*™ - Very Rare 3
159. Iraota rochana boswelliana - Very Rare -
160. Jacoona anasuja anasuja*"' - Very Rare 3
161. Jamides bochus nabonassar*” - Very Rare 3
162. Jamides caeruleus caeruleus Sky Blue Rare 3
163. Jamides celeno aelianus Common Caerulean Common +
164. Lampides boeticus Pea Blue Rare 3
165. Loxura atymnus fuconius Yamfly Rare 2
166. Megisba malaya sikkima - Very Rare 5
167. Nacaduba berenice icena Rounded 6-Line Rare 3
Blue
168. Nacaduba beroe neon - Rare 5
169. Neocheritra amrita amrita Grand Imperial Very Rare 3
170. Neopithecops zalmora zalmora ; Very Rare 3
171. Prosotas nora superdates - Common -
172. Rapala dieneces dieneces*” - Very Rare 3
173. Rapala domitia domitia - Rare 3
174. Rapala iarbus iarbus Common Red Flash Rare 3
Butterfly biodiversity
287
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
175. Rapala manea chozeba - Very Rare 3
176. Rapala suffusa barthema Very Rare 3
177. Rapala varuna orseis - Rare 5
178. Remelana jangala travana*™™ Chocolate Royal Very Rare 3
179. Semanga superba deliciosa - Rare 3
180. Sinthusa nakasa amba - Rare 3
181. Spindasis lohita senama Long Banded Very Rare 3
, Silverline
182. Spindasis syama terana Club/Black-Banded Very Rare 3
Silverline
183. Surendra vivarna amisena Acacia Blue Rare 3
184. Tajuria cippus maxentius Peacock Royal Rare 4
185. Virachola kessuma deliochus*” - Very Rare 3
186. Zeltus amasa maximinianus Fluffy Tit Rare 3
187. Zizina otis lampa Lesser Grass Blue Very Common 2
188. Zizula hylax pygmaea - Rare 1
Ancema blanka blanka - Extinct
Arhopala achelous achelous - Extinct
Arhopala agrata agrata de Niceville’s Dull Extinct
Oakblue
Arhopala alitaeus pardenas - Extinct
Arhopala allata pandora Extinct
Arhopala ariel Extinct
Arhopala avathina avathina - Extinct
Arhopala barami penanga - Extinct
Arhopala corinda acestes - Extinct
Arhopala delta - Extinct
Arhopala democritus lycaenaria . Extinct
Arhopala eumolphus maxwelli Green Oakblue Extinct
Arhopala fulla intaca - Extinct
Arhopala hypomuta hypomuta Extinct
Arhopala inornata inornata - Extinct
Arhopala lurida - Extinct
Arhopala metamuta metamuta - Extinct
Arhopala milleri . Extinct
Arhopala moorei busa - Extinct
Arhopala muta maranda : Extinct
Arhopala normani - Extinct
Arhopala phanda phanda - Extinct
Arhopala silhetensis adorea - Extinct
Arhopala sublustris ridleyi - Extinct
Arhopala wildeyana wildeyana - Extinct
Bindahara phocides phocides - Extinct
Bullis buto cowani . Extinct
Catapaecilma major emas - Extinct
Deudorix elioti - Extinct
Deudorix staudingeri - Extinct
288 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
Drina cowani - Extinct
Eliotia jalindra burbona - Extinct
Horaga albimacula malaya : Extinct
Horaga chalcedonyx malaya - Extinct
Horaga onyx sardonyx : Extinct
Traota timoleon wickii - Extinct
Jamides abdul abdul - Extinct
Jamides alecto ageladas - Extinct
Jamides elpis pseudelpis - Extinct
Jamides philatus subditus - Extinct
Jamides pura pura - Extinct
Manto hypoleuca terana : Extinct
Mantoides gama gama - Extinct
Nacaduba augusta kerriana - Extinct
Nacaduba calauria malayica - Extinct
Nacaduba hermus swatipa - Extinct
Nacaduba kurava nemana - Extinct
Nacaduba pactolus odon . Extinct
Nacaduba pavana singapura - Extinct
Nacaduba pendleburyi pendleburyi : Extinct
Nacaduba russelli - Extinct
Nacaduba sanaya elioti - Extinct
Nacaduba subperusia lysa - Extinct
Pratapa deva relata White Royal Extinct
Pratapa icetoides calculis - Extinct
Prosotas dubiosa lumpura - Extinct
Pseudotajuria donatana donatana - Extinct
Purlisa gigantea gigantea - Extinct
Rapala abnormis abnormis - Extinct
Rapala cowani - Extinct
Rapala damona - Extinct
Rapala pheretima sequeira - Extinct
Tajuria deudorix ingeni - Extinct
Tajuria dominus dominus - Extinct
Tajuria mantra mantra - Extinct
Una usta usta Singleton Extinct
Virachola subguttata malaya - Extinct
Zizeeria karsandra Dark Grass Blue Extinct
Family HESPERITIDAE — Subfamily COELIADINAE
189. Badamia exclamationis - Very Rare 3
190. Bibasis etelka*** - Very Rare 3
191. Bibasis harisa consobrina Orange Awlet Very Rare 3
192. Hasora badra badra Common Awl Rare 3
193. Hasora chromus chromus - Very Rare 3
194. Hasora schoenherr chuza*’ ‘Yellow Banded Awl Very Rare 3
195. Hasora taminatus malayana - Rare 2
Butterfly biodiversity
289
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
196. Hasora vitta vitta Plain Banded Awl Rare 3
Choaspes subcaudatus crawfurdi - Extinct
Hasora lizetta : Extinct
Family HESPERIIDAE — Subfamily PYRGINAE
197. Gerosis limax dirae** - Very Rare 3
198. Gerosis phisara phisara*” - Very Rare 3
199. Odina hieroglyphica ortina : Very Rare 3
200. Odontoptilum angulatum angulatum**” - Very Rare 3
201. Tagiades calligana - Rare 3
202. Tagiades gana gana Large Snow Flat Rare 3
203. Tagiades japetus atticus Common Snow Flat Rare 3
204. Tagiades ultra - Very Rare 3
205. Tapena thwaitesi bornea*" - Very Rare 3
Celaenorrhinus asmara asmara - Extinct
Gerosis tristis - Extinct
Family HESPERIIDAE — Subfamily HESPERIINAE
206. Ampittia dioscorides camertes** Bush Hopper Rare 3
207. Ancistroides nigrita maura Chocolate Demon Rare 3
208. Caltoris cormasa . Rare 3
209. Caltoris philippina philippina : Common 3
210. Eetion elia - Rare 3
211. Erionota acroleuca apicalis** - Very Rare 3
212. Erionota thrax thrax Banana Skipper Rare 4
213. Erionota torus - Rare 4
214. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis** Giant Redeye Very Rare 8
215. Halpe ormenes vilasina - Very Rare 3
216. Hidari irava Coconut Skipper Rare 4
217. Hyarotis adrastus praba - Very Rare 3
218. lambrix salsala salsala Chestnut Bob Rare 3
219. Iambrix stellifer Starry Bob Very Rare 3
220. Matapa aria Common Redeye Very Rare 3
221. Notocrypta paralysos varians Banded Demon Rare D
222. Oriens gola pseudolus Common Dartlet Very Rare 3
223. Pelopidas mathias mathias Small Branded Swift Common 4
224. Plastingia naga - Rare 3
225. Plastingia pellonia*® - Very Rare 3
226. Polytremis lubricans lubricans Contiguous Swift Common -
227. Potanthus omaha omaha Lesser Dart Common /
228. Pyroneura latoia latoia Yellow Veined Lancer Common 3
229. Quedara monteithi monteithi** . Very Rare 3
230. Suastus everyx everyx**’ - Very Rare 3
231. Suastus gremius gremius . Rare 2
232. Taractrocera ardonia lamia . Very Rare 3
233. Telicota besta bina - Common -
234. Udaspes folus Grass Demon Rare 2
290
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
No. Species Common Name Status Habitat
235. Unkana ambasa batara Hoary Palmer Very Rare 3
236. Zela zenon** - Very Rare 3
Astictopterus jama jama Forest Hopper Extinct
Baoris farri farri - Extinct
Baoris oceia Paintbrush Swift Extinct
Borbo cinnara Formosan Swift Extinct
Caltoris malaya - Extinct
Cephrenes acalle niasicus - Extinct
Gangara lebadea lebadea - Extinct
Idmon distanti - Extinct
Idmon obliquans obliquans Small Red Bob Extinct
Notocrypta clavata clavata - Extinct
Parnara bada bada - Extinct
Pelopidas agna agna - Extinct
Pemara pugnans pugnans Pugnacious Lancer __ Extinct
Potanthus confucius dushta - Extinct
Potanthus heraerus serina - Extinct
Potanthus juno Juno : Extinct
Potanthus trachala tytleri - Extinct
Psolos fuligo fuligo The Coon Extinct
Telicota augias augias Palm Dart Extinct
Telicota colon stinga - Extinct
Zela cowani - Extinct
Zographetus doxus - Extinct
Zographetus ogygia ogygia - Extinct
Zographetus rama . Extinct
Compiled by Khew Sin Khoon, 1 September 1998.
New records for Singapore are printed in bold.
Species identified in the genus Arhopala are tentative and subject to further verification.
The extinct species have either not been seen in recent years or are believed to be extinct.
However, it is still possible that some of these may turn up in continuing surveys.
Ww i —
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Chestnut Ave.
'° Two unconfirmed sightings at Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
Very seasonal. No physical records taken in recent years.
Record verified by a single physical specimen taken in the Mandai area.
Very local in distribution. Found mainly in the Sembawang area.
Species recorded by a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.
Very local in distribution. Observed only on Pulau Ubin.
Species recorded by a single photographed specimen at Night Safari Zoo.
Species recorded by a single physical specimen taken in Lower Peirce Reservoir area.
Species recorded in early 90s. None observed in recent years.
Not seen in recent years, except for one physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track,
'' Not seen in recent years, except one physical specimen taken in the Mandai area.
————
Butterfly biodiversity 291
Very localised distribution in the Mandai area.
'3 All specimens taken on the Gangsa Track, Chestnut Ave.
‘4 Very local in distribution. Records mainly from Sungei Buloh Nature Park.
'S Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.
'© Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the MacRitchie area.
'7 Species recorded from two physical specimens taken at Pulau Ubin and Khatib Bongsu.
'8 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.
' Three unconfirmed sightings in Feb 98. No physical specimens taken.
*0 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the MacRitchie area.
21 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Mandai area.
* Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track.
*3 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track.
4 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
* Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Gangsa Track.
*6 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.
*7 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.
*8 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken on the Island Club Track.
*? Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Upper Peirce Reservoir.
*? Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.
*! Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Sime Road area.
*” Very local. Found only on the Water’s Edge Path, Chestnut Ave area.
33 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
“ Unconfirmed observation on the Island Club Track.
* Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Nee Soon Pipeline.
*6 Species recorded from two physical specimens taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
*7 Species recorded from a single physical specimen taken at Upper Peirce Reservoir.
*8 Species recorded by a single physical specimen taken in the Upper Seletar Reservoir Park.
292 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Khew Sin Khoon
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Plate 1. Family Papilionidae. a. The Great Mormon (Papilio memnon agenor) female form-
esperi is the commonest of the four forms found in Singapore. b. The Common Mormon
(Papilio polytes romulus) - recently hatched males drying their wings. c. The Banded
Swallowtail (Papilio demolion demolion) is a threatened species. d. The Common Birdwing
(Troides helena cerberus), being very dependent on its caterpillar host plant, Aristolochia tagala,
is extremely vulnerable to extinction. e. The Five Bar Swordtail (Pathysa antiphates itamputi)
is a relatively rare and forest-dependent species. f. The Tailed Green Jay (Graphium
agamemnon agamemnon) can be found in the reserves and housing estates.
Butterfly biodiversity 293
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Plate 2. Family Nymphalidae—Subfamily Danainae (a—b) and Subfamily Satyrinae (c—d).
a. The Common Tree Nymph (/dea stolli logani) is a forest-dependent species which floats
among tree tops. b. The Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus chrysippus) is extremely rare and
sightings are limited to northen part of the island. c. The Tawny Palmfly (Elymnias panthera
panthera) is a forest-dependent species which feeds on palms. d. The Malayan Bush Brown
(Mycalesis fusca fusca) is a forest-dependent species which is usually seen singly amongst
low-growing shrubs and grasses. |
294 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
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Plate 3. Family Nymphalidae—Subfamily Nymphalinae (a—c) and Subfamily Charaxinae
(d). a. This rare Athyma asura idita is a forest-dependent species. b. This extremely rare Euthalia
adonia pinwilli is most often seen on the western banks of the Upper Peirce Reservoir. c.
Lexias dirtea merguia is a rare forest-dependent species. d. Polyura hebe plautus,a subspecies
thought to occur only in Singapore, and southern Johore.
Butterfly biodiversity 295
Khew Sin Khoon
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Plate 4. Family Lycaenidae—Subfamily Riodininae (a—b) and Subfamily Lycaeninae (c—
d). a. Abisara geza niya is a rare forest-dependent species. b. The Lesser Harlequin (Laxita
thuisto thuisto) is a rare forest-dependent species. e. Arhopala abseus abseus is more common
here than in Malaysia. d. The forest-dependent Common Posy (Drupadia ravindra moorei) is
found throughout the Nature Reserves.
296 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Plate 5c Steven Neo
Plate 5a Steven Neo Plate Sb Steven Neo
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|
|
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Plate 5d Khew Sin Khoon Plate Se Khew Sin Khoon
Plate 5. Family Lycaenidae—Subfamily Lycaeninae (a—c), Family Hesperiidae—Subfamily
Pyrginae (d) and Subfamily Coeliadinae (e). a. The Common Tit - Caterpillar stage. b. The
Common Tit - Pupa stage. e. The Common Tit (Hypolycaena erylus teatus).d. Tagiades calligana,
a forest-dependent species which is usually seen singly. e. The rare Orange Awlet (Bibasis
harisa consobrina) is bred on Arthrophyllum diversifolium found in the Nature Reserves.
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 297-312.
Stick and Leaf Insect (Phasmida: Insecta) Biodiversity in
the Nature Reserves of Singapore
FRANCIS SEOW-CHOEN
Department of Colorectal Surgery
Singapore General Hospital
Outram Road, Singapore 169608
Abstract
Forty-one species of phasmids found in Singapore extant as well as extinct are listed and
aspects of their conservation discussed. Eleven species are still relatively common and are
widely distributed especially within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Eleven species
exist in only very isolated pockets within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. One
species has been found only in the Punggol area. A further ten species are very rare and in
almost a decade of studying these insects only one or two specimens have been found in
Singapore. An additional eight species have not been seen or recorded for at least 30 years
and are best described as extinct in Singapore.
Introduction
Stick and Leaf Insects (order Phasmida) are common but little known
insects of tropical and subtropical forests. Indeed, South-East Asia has a
large number of species. Most if not all species have an uncanny ability to
“disappear” into their surroundings by mimicking sticks and leaves thus
earning them their names Phasmida and Spectres, both meaning ‘ghost-
like’. Phasmids are food plant specific and all species refuse to eat unless
the plants offered are acceptable to that particular species. Most species
will take only a few species of naturally occurring plants. Similar species
may eat similar plants while species from different genera eat totally
different plants. In the wild, phasmids are usually located on or near their
food plants. This may, therefore, make phasmids a good indicator of forest
health. A wide variety of phasmids is an indicator of the presence of a
wide variety of plant species.
The order Phasmida is divided into three suborders and six families.
The suborder Timematodea consists of one family of small insects with
three segmented tarsi and is found only in North and Central America. All
other phasmids are therefore divided into one of the other two suborders.
The suborder Areolatae consists of insects where the middle and hind
tibiae have a sunken triangular region or areola on the underside of the
apices. The suborder Anareolatae is made up of insects without this sunken
areola. The suborder Areolatae consists of the families Bacillidae,
ae
298 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Pseudophasmatidae and the Phyllidae. The suborder Anareolatae consists
of the families Heteronemiidae and the Phasmatidae.
History and Methods
Prior to the present survey, reports of phasmids from Singapore were
scanty and limited to occasional and infrequent accounts (Westwood, 1859;
Brunner & Redtenbacher, 1906-08; Ridley, 1894). During the course of
this survey, several reports were published including new records and new
species (Seow-Choen, 1993a-e, 1995a-d, 1996a-b, 1997a-b; Seow-Choen &
Brock, 1996; Seow-Choen et al., 1994a-d; Seow-Choen et al., 1994e; Tay &
Seow-Choen, 1996, Seow-Choen & Seow-En, 1994; Seow-Choen eft al.,
1996 & Brock, 1995)
Details of records from Singapore were based on field observations
by the author, friends and colleagues as well as extensive searches of the
literature and examination of museum collections. The author started
working on Singapore phasmids in 1990. Full details on synonyms and
museum records may be found in Brock (1999). Field work consisted mainly
of meticulous searching after dark of bushes along paths within the Nature
Reserves. These insects are nocturnal and daytime searching 1s futile. Night-
time searching with a powerful hand torch gives the best results. Searches
are normally made from ground to a level of about 3 m from ground level.
Searches higher up were not made as capture of insects at such levels
would have been impossible. It is possible that many insects that are
considered rare are present at the top of the canopy but these are impossible
to assess at the present time by the current methods employed by the
author. Torch lighting obviously allows only for capture of individual insects
one at a time and is time consuming and labour intensive.
Phasmid ecology, including food plants and aspects of their life cycle,
was also investigated as the author is successful in rearing many of the
local species.
Results
The Phasmida classification of Bradley and Galil (1977) lists three suborders,
six families and 17 subfamilies. In our survey of Singapore forests, we
have found representatives from two suborders, five families and six
subfamilies (Table 1). Altogether 41 species have been found or been
recorded in the past from Singapore. In the course of our research into
Singapore’s Phasmids, 18 new records for Singapore were established,
numerous synonyms cleared up and three undescribed species found. Two
Stick and leaf insect biodiversity
299
species (Abrosoma xiuyuae and Asceles singapura) have since been
described. One species is still undescribed and could possibly represent a
new genus.
Table 1. Checklist of Phasmids in Singapore and their status.
(C=common, I= isolated pockets, R= rare, E=extinct)
No. Species Status
Suborder AREOLATAE
Family BACILLIDAE — Subfamily HETEROPTERYGINAE
1. Datames oileus (Westwood) 1859 =
2. Datames mouhotii (Bates) 1865 I
3. Heteropteryx dilatata (Parkinson) 1798 E
4. Planispectrum bengalensis (Redtenbacher)1906 R
Family PPEUDOPHASMATIDAE — Subfanily
ASCHIPHASMATINAE
5. Abrosoma xiuyuae Brock & Seow-Choen 1999 C
6. Presbistus peleus (Gray) 1835 C
7. Presbistus flavicornis (de Haan 1842) E
Family PHYLLIDAE
8. | Phyllium bioculatum Gray 1832 R
9. Phyllium siccifolium (Linnaeus) 1758 R
Suborder ANAREOLATAE
Family HETERONEMIIDAE — Subfamily NECROSCIINAE
10. Acacus sarawacus (Westwood) 1859 I
11. Asceles malaccae (Saussure )1868 e
12. Asceles larunda (Westwood) 1859 e
13. Asceles singapura Seow-Choen & Brock 1999 I
14. Calvisia sangarius (Westwood) 1859 EB
15. Diacanthoidea diacanthos (de Haan) 1842 R
16. Diesbachia tamyris (westwood) 1859 I
17. Gargantuoidea phaetusa(Westwood) 1859 E
18. Gargantuoidea triumphalis Redtenbacher 1908 R
19. Lopaphus brachypterus (de Haan) 1842 R
20. Lopaphus iolas (Westwood) 1859 f
21. Marmessoidea rosea (Fabricius) 1793 EB
22. Necroscia punctata (Gray) 1835 I
23. Necroscia affinis (Gray) 1835 3
24. Necroscia roseipennis Audinet-Serville 1838 Cc
25. Necroscia westwoodi Kirby 1904 I
26. Necroscia inflata (Redtenbacher) 1908 Ce
27. Phaenopharos struthioneus (Westwood) 1859 EB
28. Sipyloidea sipylus (Westwood) 1859 I
29. Sipyloidea meneptolemus (Westwood) 1859 R
300 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
No. Species . Status
30. Sosibia esacus (Westwood) 1859 I
31. Sosibia solida Redtenbacher 1908 I
32. Baculofractum insignis (Brunner von Wattenwyl) 1907 R
33. Undescribed species R
Family HETERONEMIIDAE — Subfamily LONCHODINAE
34. Carausius nodosus (de Haan) 1842 I
35. Lonchodes brevipes Gray 1835 .
36. Lonchodes geniculatus Gray 1835 C
37. Prisomera malaya (Stal) 1875 2
Family HETERONEMIIDAE — Subfamily HETERONEMIINAE
38. Bactricia ridleyi Kirby 1904 E
Family PHASMATIDAE — Subfamily PHASMATINAE
39. Baculum nematodes (de Haan) 1842 I
40. Eurycnema versirubra (Audinet-Serville) 1838 E
41. Phobaeticus serratipes (Gray) 1835 R
All the living phasmids located by the author were found in the
Central Catchment Nature Reserve and its surrounding fringe areas such
as the forest within the Singapore Island Country Club locality. The full
list of phasmid food plants is not discussed here as it has been published
(Tay & Seow-Choen, 1996).
Eleven species are still relatively common and are widely distributed
especially in the Central Nature Reserve Areas. These are Datames oileus
(Plate la), Presbistus peleus, Abrosoma xiuyuae, Asceles malaccae, A.
larunda (Plate 1b), Necroscia affinis (Plate 1c—e), N. roseipennis (Plate 2a—
b), N. inflata, Lonchodes brevipes (Plate 2c), L. geniculatus (Plate 2d) and
Prisomera malaya. All these species are common because their food plants
are very common within the Nature Reserves.
Datames oileus is a small ground or low-lying species that feeds mainly
on Curculigo spp. (Hydrophyllaceae), palms, and various species of aroids.
This species is therefore widely distributed in the Nature Reserve and is
especially common in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and the trail leading
from Singapore Island Country Club to MacRitchie Reservoir (S-M trail).
Prebistus peleus feeds only on Leea indica (Leeaceae), a very common
shrub within the Nature Reserves and its fringes, A. xiuyuae is widespread
and its feeding marks are found on every Pternandra echinata
(Melastomataceae) that I have encountered. Strangely this phasmid was
undescribed before this survey began. Asceles malaccae and A. larunda are
very common flying insects that feed mainly on the various Macaranga
species. These are common along the S-M trail as well as in Upper Pierce
Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 301
Reservoir Park. Necroscia affinis and N. roseipennis are also commonly
seen. These very pretty insects are beautifully coloured. Necroscia affinis
occurs in various shades of green, yellow, brown and even red, all with
yellow spots. Necroscia roseipennis possesses bright rose coloured wings.
They feed on Cinnamomum iners (Lauraceae) and N. roseipennis may also
be found on Gomphandra quadrifida (Icacinaceae). Necroscia roseipennis —
and N. affinis are common at the S-M trail, and may also be found along
Rifle Range Road trail. Unfortunately these insects have not spread to
roadside cinammon trees as the dryness and heat make the sides of highways
and roads very unsuitable for these insects for which high humidity is
essential for their survival. Necroscia inflata is another very common insect
found on the various Uncaria species and on Mussaenda glabra in the
Nature Reserves. It is very common at Rifle Range Road, Upper Pierce
Road and along the S-M trail. Lonchodes brevipes, L. geniculatus and P.
malaya are also widespread species within the Nature Reserves. Of these
three species, L. geniculatus is perhaps the most common, especially along
the S-M Trail. It feeds on a wide variety of plants, including various Uncaria
species, Ilex macrophylla (Aquifoliaceae) and Psychotria rostrata
(Rubiaceae). Prisomera malaya feeds on various low-growing ferns and it
is also commonly encountered along the S-M trail and on Bukit Timah
Hill. Lonchodes brevipes feeds on these plants as well as Grewia acuminata
(Tiliaceae) and introduced species such as Acacia auriculiformis
(Leguminosae) and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malvaceae). It is widespread
but not as commonly seen as the other two species just mentioned.
Lonchodes brevipes was found on Pulau Ubin as well as in Labrador Park.
Unfortunately, 11 species exist in only very isolated pockets within
the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. These are Datames mouhotii,
Acacus sarawacus (Plate 3a—b), Asceles singapura (Plate 3c—d), Diesbachia
tamyris, Lopaphus iolas (Plate 3e), Necroscia punctata (Plate 4a—b), N.
westwoodi, Sosibia esacus, S. solida (Plate 4c), Carausius nodosus (Plate
4d) and Baculum nematodes (Plate 4e). Although D. mouhotii feeds on the
same plants as D. oileus, it is found only in a small patch of forest in Upper
Seletar Reservoir Park. The reason it has not spread like D. oileus is not
immediately obvious. Perhaps it is because the species is less prolific or
hardy as it is probably a parthenogenetic species. No male has ever been
found. Acacus sarawacus exists only in one spot along the S-M trail. It is a
very difficult species to keep alive in captivity and requires high humidity
at all times. It feeds on Lithocarpus ewyckii in the wild and Psidium guajava
when in captivity. Asceles singapura also feeds on Macaranga, especially
Macaranga gigantea, but its range seems to be confined to Upper Pierce
and the S-M trail. Diesbachia tamyris and C. nodosus are found in the
same general area in MacRitchie Reservoir on the trail to the Shinto Shrine.
302 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Carausius nodosus is always found on Rourea mimosoides (Connaraceae)
along this trail. The wild food plant of D. tamyris is not known. Lopaphus
iolas is only found near the freshwater swamp forest area within the Nature
Reserves, although it feeds on a wide variety of plants. Necroscia punctata
and N. westwoodi may be found on Bukit Timah Hill and occasionally
along the S-M trail. The former feeds on Cinnamomum iners (Lauraceae)
and the latter on Psychotria malayana (Rubiaceae). Again the reason for
the isolation of N. punctata is not obvious as Cinnamomum iners is a
common tree. Necroscia punctata may also be found along the Upper
Pierce Road. Sosibia esacus and S. solida are both limited to areas where
their food plant grows. Sosibia esacus may be found along Upper Pierce
Road, and Bukit Timah Hill whereas S. solida is found along the S-M trail.
Sosibia esacus feeds on Salacia macrophylla and Ixonanthes reticulata. The
food plant of S. solida is still unidentified. Baculofractum nematodes 1s a
very long species in the female reaching up to 190 mm. It was found on
Grewia acuminata (Tiliaceae) along Upper Pierce Road and near the
freshwater swamp forest area.
Sipyloidea sipylus has been found only in the Punggol area feeding
on cultivated guava. It had not been encountered within the Nature
Reserves.
A further ten species are very rare and in almost a decade of studying
these insects, only one or two specimens have been found in Singapore.
These are Planispectrum bengalensis, Phyllium bioculatum, P. siccifolium
(Plate 5a), Diacanthoidea diacanthos (Plate 5b), Gargantuoidea triumphalis,
Lopaphus brachypterus (Plate 5c—d), Sipyloidea meneptolemus,
Baculofractum insignis (Plate 6a), Phobaeticus serratipes and an undescribed
species of Necrosciinae (Plate 6b). Planispectrum bengalensis is very tiny
and is ground dwelling and this may explain its rarity. Phyllium species are
very difficult to find as they are tree top dwellers. The winged phasmids;
D. diacanthos, G. triumphalis, L. brachypterus, S. meneptolemus and B.
insignis are very specialised feeders and this may explain their rarity. The
female B. insignis is not winged but is a very fussy feeder nonetheless.
Phobaeticus serratipes is a very common insect in West Malaysia and feeds
on a wide variety of plants including Mangifera indica, Macaranga spp..,
Uncaria spp. and many others, which explains its frequency. In Singapore,
however, it is very rare inspite of the presence of its food plants. Perhaps
its long length has to do with its rarity as it may make the insect more
readily detectable by both human and animal predators. The longest female
on record measured 555 mm from tip of front claw to tip of the hind claw.
The undescribed species is currently being researched but its rarity may
make work on this species very difficult.
An additional eight species have not been seen or recorded for at
Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 303
least 30 years and are best described as extinct in Singapore. These are
Heteropteryx dilatata, Presbistus flavicornis, Calvisia sangarius (Plate 6c),
Gargantuiodea phaetusa, Marmessoidea rosea, Phaenopharos sthruthioneus
(Plate 6d), Bactricia ridleyi and Eurycnema versirubra. Heteropteryx dilatata
and E. versirubra are large impressive species and may have been destroyed
by farmers clearing land in the early days. These insects were also kept in
the past by Malays and Chinese as their droppings were used for a variety
of ailments including diarrhoea and as an aphrodisiac. Perhaps they were
overcollected for this purpose. The other insects are probably all very
specialised feeders and occurred only in isolated pockets where their food
plants were found. Entire populations may have been destroyed when the
original forest was cleared. Bactricia ridleyi is known only from the holotypic
specimen found by H.N. Ridley in the Singapore Botanic Gardens.
Discussion
Singapore has only about 2675 ha of forest left which includes reservoir
areas in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve as well as 164 ha of forest
at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (National Parks Board, pers. comm.). A
well thought-out and planned conservation programme for these forested
areas is of utmost importance, if Singapore’s remaining flora and fauna are
to survive.
Phasmids are phytophagous and indeed very particular about the
species of leaves they eat. Many species of phasmids will only feed on a
very few species of plants. Destruction of these plants will therefore result
in the elimination of food plant dependent insect species. Many species,
which have particularly specific food plant requirements, are therefore
either extinct, at serious risk of extinction or occur only in very isolated
pockets where these plants may be found. In primary rain forests, many
hundreds of species of plants are found and an individual of a particular
species may be widely separated from the next. Destruction of our natural
forest trees is an important cause of the disappearance of some of our
indigenous stick-insect species as when forests are cleared stick-insect food
plant are lost. The resulting effect is that the stick-insect species dependent
on these food plants are eliminated and are not to be found at the cleared
sites anymore.
The continual encroachment of man into the fringes of forested areas
also has had very negative effects on our insect populations. The building
of houses near the Nature Reserves poses a very serious problem. Many of
the flying insect species including phasmids are attracted to light and many
are therefore eliminated in this manner. This threat is far more damaging
304 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
than collection by insect enthusiasts. Lights from street lamps and houses
probably attract and result in the death of far more insects than all insect
enthusiasts can collect in their combined life times.
Combined with the building of roads and houses adjacent to the
forests is mankind’s general dislike for insects and his rampant use of
insecticides, pesticides and herbicides. Phasmids are very sensitive insects
and will not tolerate any amount of insect poison with the result that
indiscriminate spraying of pesticides had eliminated most of Singapore’s
phytophagus insects.
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Phasmatodea, with Keys to the subfamilies and tribes. Proceedings of the
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Brock, P.D. 1999. Stick-insects of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore.
Malaysian Nature Society. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Leipzig. Engelmann Verlag.
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The Phasmid Study Group. 56: 6.
Seow-Choen, F. 1993b. Colour of newly hatched Phyllium. The Phasmid
Study Group. 56: 7.
Seow-Choen, F. 1993c. Datames oileus and bramble. The Phasmid Study
Group. 56: 7.
Seow-Choen, F. 1993d. Guava and stick- and leaf-insects. The Phasmid
Study Group. 58: 9-10.
Seow-Choen, F. 1993e. A stick insect year in Singapore. The Phasmid
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Seow-Choen, F. 1995b. The longest insect in the world. Malayan Naturalist.
48: 12.
Seow-Choen, F. 1995c. Two more gynandromorphs of the Malayan Jungle
Nymph, Heteropteryx dilatata (Phasmida) with notes on captive
behaviour. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 54: 49-51.
Seow-Choen, F. 1995d. The stick insect Datames oileus (Westwood) 1859
(Phasmida). Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 54: 239.
Seow-Choen, F. 1996a. Reproductive behaviour in stick insects. Insect and
Invertebrate World. 1: 23-25.
Seow-Choen, F. 1996b. Leaf insects of Peninsular Malaysia. Nature
Malaysiana. 21: 68-73.
Seow-Choen, F. 1997a. Stick insects. Malaysian Naturalist. 51: 32-33.
Seow-Choen, F. 1997b. A Guide to the Stick and Leaf Insects of Singapore.
Singapore Science Centre.
Seow-Choen, F. & Brock, P.D. 1996. A rare stick insect from Singapore,
Lopaphus brachypterus (de Haan) 1842 with description of the male
and egg. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 55: 79-82.
Seow-Choen, F. & I. Seow-En. 1994. Nature’s mimics. Nature Malaysiana.
19: 89-96.
Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994a. The stick-insects of
Singapore. Singapore Scientists. 70: 10-14.
Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994b. Notes on the stick-
insect Prisomera malaya (Stal) (Phasmida) in Singapore with a description
of the male and egg. Malayan Nature Journal. 48: 59-65.
Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994c. Colour variations of the
stick insect Necroscia roseipennis Serville (Phasmida=Phasmatodea) in
Singapore. Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists’ Society. 53: 71-73.
Seow-Choen, F., P.D. Brock & I. Seow-En. 1994d. An introduction to the
stick and leaf insects of Singapore. Malaysian Naturalist. 46: 7-11.
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insects. Nature Malaysiana. 21: 40-47.
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insects in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. In : I.M. Turner, C.H.
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Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 307
Plate lb
Plate Ic
Plate Id.
Plate le
Plate 1. Some of the common and widely distributed species in the Nature Reserves. a. A
mating pair of the common Datames oileus. These small insects feed on the Money plant
(Epipremnum aureum, Araceae ).b. A mating pair of the common Asceles larunda. All Asceles
species are Macaranga feeders. ce. A red specimen of Necroscia affinis. This species has several
colour varieties. It may be seen along Upper Pierce Road feeding on wild cinnamon. d. A
brown variety of Necroscia affinis.e. A mating pair of the green variety of Necroscia affinis.
308 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
2b
Plate
Plate 2. Some of the common and widely distributed species in the Nature Reserves. a. A
green adult female Necroscia roseipennis.b. A brown adult male Necroscia roseipennis. ¢. A
female Lonchodes brevipes resting among leaves. This common species is very easily reared
in captivity as it feeds on a wide variety of garden-plants including guava, hibiscus, rose and
bramble. d. A mating pair of Lonchodes geniculatus. It is common in all parts of the Nature
Reserve but does not feed on any common garden-plants.
Stick and leaf insect biodiversity 309
Plate 3b.
Plate 3d.
s
se
Plate
Plate 3. Species found in only isolated pockets within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve.
a. A male Acacus sarawacus shows the white knees typical of the sex. This species is found
only in a very small patch of forest along the MacRitchie to the Singapore Island Country
Club trail. b. A female Acacus sarawacus lies very still in a state of thanatosis after being
disturbed in the hope of escaping detection. ce. A female Asceles singapura on Macaranga.
This species was described recently from specimens found in Singapore. It is found along
isolated pockets of forest in Upper Pierce and along the MacRitchie-Island Club trail. d. A
nymphal Asceles singapura. e. Lopaphus iolas is common all over Peninsular Malaysia but is
found only near the fresh water swamp forest in Singapore. This is a female adult.
310 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Plate 4b
Plate 4d
Plate 4. Species found in only isolated pockets within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve.
a. Necroscia punctata is a very colourful species that is occasionally encountered. This is a
green variety. b. This is a red Necroscia punctata. ec. Another view of an adult Sosibia solida. d.
Carausius nodosus is found only in isolated pockets along the MacRitchie trail to the old
Shinto Shrine. The female bears a pair of tufts on the head. Both sexes have bright red mid
femurs. e. Baculum nematodes is found only along Upper Pierce Road and the fresh water
swamp forest area.
Stick and leaf insect biodiversity
eae
TFTA AM A a ARAM A AIMEE
Plate Sb
Plate Sd
Plate 5. Some of the rare species encountered in the Nature Reserves. a. Phyllium siccifolium
is another leaf insect that may be found in Singapore albeit very rarely. b. A male Diacanthoidea
diacanthos is very rare. Only one specimen has ever been found in Singapore and that at
Upper Pierce Road. e. Lopaphus brachypterus is a rare insect found only very occasionally.
This is a male. d. A female Lopaphus brachypterus feeding on guava.
312 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Plate 6a.
Plate 6b
Plate 6d.
Plate 6c.
Plate 6. Some of the rare species encountered in the Nature Reserves (a—b). Two of the
extinct species (c-d). a. Baculofractum insignis is very rare in Singapore and may be found
only around the fresh water swamp forest. b. An unidentified Necrosciinae which may represent
anew genus. ¢. Calvisia sangarius, now extinct in Singapore, is a very specialized feeder and as
far as is known feeds only on a very pungent forest tree. d. Phaenopharos struthioneus is
extinct in Singapore and has not been seen for many decades now.
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 313-319.
Semi-aquatic Bug (Heteroptera: Gerromorpha) Fauna in
the Nature Reserves of Singapore
C.M. YANG, H.K. LUA AND K.L. YEO
Zoological Reference Collection
Department of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore
Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260
Abstract
A total of 37 species of semiaquatic bugs were recorded from the forest during the survey
of the Nature Reserves. 78% were found in the Nee Soon Swamp Forest that also has the
highest percentage of the rare or threatened species on the island. Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve has the lowest diversity. Three forest-dependent species, Cylindrostethus malayensis,
Ventidius hungerfordi and Esakia fernandoi previously recorded from Singapore were not
found and hence are, presumed extinct. Eight species are new records for Singapore.
Introduction
Early studies on the Singapore’s freshwater bugs were scattered in some
reports (van Martens, 1876; Esaki, 1926, 1930). After 1960, substantial
studies on Malaysian fauna were carried out by the University of Singapore.
Researchers documented a total of 15 species of Gerridae and two species
of Veliidae in Singapore (Cheng, 1965; Cheng & Fernando, 1969; Fernando
& Cheng, 1974). Murphy (1990) reviewed the fauna and increased the
species list to 19 Gerridae, eight Veliidae, two Hydrometridae and two
Mesoveliidae from freshwater habitats. However, he also failed to record
three species (Cylindrostethus malayensis, Ventidius hungerfordi and Esakia
fernandoi) previously recorded by Cheng and Fernando.
In view of changes in the forest habitats caused by development and
other human activities in recent years, this study was conducted to provide
a present-day checklist of the semiaquatic bugs (Gerromorpha) found in
the forest. It is also to record the diversity and distribution of the fauna of
the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and Central Catchment Nature Reserve
that are separated by the Bukit Timah Expressway.
As the true aquatic bugs (Nepomorpha) are rarely found in the
forest because of the poor vegetation growth in and along streams and the
lack of natural standing waters, they are not discussed in this report.
314 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Amemboa brevifasciata @ Hydrometra carinata,
H. longicapitis, H. okinawana
& H. papuana
Cryptobates rufus
Tenagogonus octopunctatus
& T. quingquemaculatus
Figure 1. Distribution of some rare heteropteran bugs in the Nature Reserves. Inset shows
the location of the Nature Reserves in Singapore. BTNR: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, BKE:
Bukit Timah Expressway, ------ : Boundary of Nature Reserves.
Semi-aquatic bug fauna 315
Materials and Methods
The survey area (Figure 1) covered in this study included all the water
drainages found in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve and the Bukit
Timah Nature Reserve from 1992 to 1995. Specimens were collected by
hand nets or by hand and then either preserved in 75% alcohol or pinned
dry. They were deposited in the Zoological Reference Collection of the
National University of Singapore.
Results and Conclusions
A total of 37 species of semiaquatic bugs were recorded from the reserves
during this survey (Table 1), with 36 species found in the Central Catchment
Nature Reserve and 17 species in the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Of the
24 forest species, 13 are considered rare in Singapore and they are mostly
distributed in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve. Eight species:
Tenagogonus octopunctatus, Ventidius modulatus, Microvelia albolineolata,
Neoalardus typicus, Hydrometra carinata, H. longicapitis, H. okinawana
and H. papuana were recorded from Singapore for the first time. Several
other recently published records were also based on the materials collected
in the Nature Reserves notably, Cryptobates rufus, Rhagovelia singaporensis
and R. rudischuhi (Polhemus & Polhemus, 1995a; Yang & Polhemus, 1994).
Table 1. Distribution of Gerromorphan bugs in the Singapore Nature Reserves.
S : Seletar; M : MacRitichie; N : Nee Soon; J : Jungle Fall Valley; P : Peripheral
(F : forest species; R : rare, restricted distribution; C : common; U : uncommon:
1 : moderate/fast flowing water; 2 : slow flowing water; 3 : swamp forest: 4 : pool
and puddle; 5 : margin of water or bank:
* : new record; + : present; - : absent.)
Species Status Habitat Central Catchment Bukit Timah
S M N J P
Family GERRIDAE
1. Amemboa brevifasciata Miyamoto, FR 2,5 : 7 : : d
1967
2. Amemboa riparia Polhemus & FU 25 Pe 4 +. x
Andersen, 1984
3. Aquarius adelaides (Dohrn, 1860) U 4 ¥ 4 i E ‘
4. Cryptobates rufus J & D Polhemus, FR 3 - + + 2 :
1995
5. Limnogonus fossarum (Fabricius, 1775) U 4 = + + , +
6. Metrocoris tenuicornis Esaki. 1926 FC 2 - + + + +
316 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
_ Species Status | Habitat | Central Catchment | Bukit Timah
| Re ae ee es
7. Neogerris parvulus Stal, 1860 U 4 ~ + - - + |
8. Ptilomera tigrina Uhler, 1860 PC. Meare - ma rs : +)
9. Rheumatogonus intermedius FC 1 si = - - -
Hungerford, 1933 |
10. Rhagodotarsus kraepelini Breddin, (9) 4 + + ~ : - |
| 1905
| 11. Tenagogonus (Limnometra) ciliatus U 4 + + + - -
Mayr, 1865
12. Tenagogonus (L.) insularis Hungerford | FC 2 + + + + +)
& Matsuda, 1958
13. *Tenagogonus (L.) octopunctatus PR ious + ~ - : - |
Hungerford, 1955
14. Tenagogonus quinquemaculatus FR Ps + + + - -
Miyamoto, 1967
15. Ventidius harrisoni Cheng, 1965 FC 2 + + + - -
16. *Ventidius modulatus Lundblad, 1933 FR 2 = + - - -
Family VELIIDAE
17. *Microvelia albolineolata Torre FU 4 - : - - + |
Bueno, 1927
18. Microvelia diluta Distant, 1909 te 4 + + - +
19. Microvelia douglasi Scott, 1874 U + + + - - -
20. Microvelia plumbea Lundblad, 1933 FR 3,4 + + - - -
21. Microvelia genitalis Lundblad, 1933 FR 3,4 ~ - + + +
22. Microvelia sp. 1 PO | oe + + + + +
23. Microvelia sp. 2 ile ae + + + - +
24. *Neoalardus typicus (Distant, 1903) R 2 - - -
25. Rhagovelia sumatrensis Lundblad, 1933 | FC 1,2 + + + + -
26. Rhagovelia singaporensis Yang & D BO (ice + + + :
| Polhemus, 1994
| 27. Rhagovelia rudischuhi Zettel, 1993 FC Zz + ~ + - -
_ 28. Strongylovelia sp. Le Dee ae + ~ - - -
_ Family HYDROMETRIDAE
29. *Hydrometra carinata J & D Polhemus,| FR = 3,5 . : + - -
| 1995
_ 30. Hydrometra insularis Hungerford & R 3.5 - + + - +
Evans, 1934
31. *Hydrometra longicapitis Torre Bueno,| FR — 3,5 - - + - :
1927
32. Hydrometra maidli Hungerford & U 313 + + + : -
Evans, 1934
33. *Hydrometra okinawana Drake, 1951 FR 35 - - + - -
34. *Hydrometra papuana Kirkaldy, 1901 | FR = 3,5 - : - - -
Semi-aquatic bug fauna 317
Species Status Habitat Central Catchment Bukit Timah
S M N J P
Family MESOVELIIDAE
35. Mesovelia horvathi Lundblad, 1933 & 45 + 4 + + +
36. Mesovelia vittigera Horvath 1895 U 45 - - ~ - -
Family HEBRIDAE
37. Hebrus sp. U 45 - ~ ~ -
Rare species (13) 5 8 y 1 2
Forest species (24) 16 19 20 6 10
Total species (37) 27 31 29 7 17
The poor diversity of Gerromorphan bugs in the Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve was due to the small and relatively short streams with poorly
grown aquatic vegetation and total absence of swamp. The middle and
lower reaches of the streams were either at the edge of the forest or in the
open country habitats. Inside the forest, parts of the streams dried up
easily during the dry season as these were exposed due to a large number
of fallen big trees in recent years. They probably also suffered from the
drying effects of the numerous walking trails constructed in the reserve
(Corlett, 1988). The isolated location and the small stream at a higher
elevation in Jungle Fall Valley probably accounted for the lowest number
of forest species of (6 out of 24) found in this primary forest.
The Central Catchment Nature Reserve has many swampy forest
streams under well-shaded forest and these provide different microhabitats
that are not available in the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. Ten forested
species found in the forest of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve,
Amemboa brevifasciata, Cryptobates rufus, Rheumatogonus intermedius,
Tenagogonus (L.) octopunctatus, T. quinquemaculatus, Ventidius harrisoni,
V. modulatus Microvelia plumbea, Rhagovelia singaporensis and
Strongylovelia sp. were not found in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. With
exception of R. intermedius (moderate to fast flowing water species), the
other nine species were either found on swampy puddles or in slow flowing
streams (Table 1). Four species of water measurers, Hydrometra carinata,
H. longicapitis, H. okinawana and H. papuana, were collected from a weedy
pool, in a semi-open country habitat, near the Nee Soon swamp forest.
These were new records for Singapore and found only in this location. H.
papuana is very rare in Peninsular Malaysia and was only recorded from
lowland swamp forests (Polhemus & Polhemus, 1995b).
The Nee Soon Forest has the highest species diversity recorded in
this study. Twenty (83%) of the 24 forest species and 9 (69%) of the 13
318 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
rare species were found in this location. This swamp forest was also the
type locality for two recently described species, Rhagovelia singaporensis
Yang & Polhemus (1994) and Cryptobates rufus Polhemus & Polhemus
(1995a). The latter is rare (Figure 1) and distributed only in a few swampy
streams, under well shaded forest, either near headwaters or in areas with
iron hydroxide deposits (Murphy, 1990).
Metrocoris tenuicornis, Rhagovelia sumatrensis and R. rudischuhi were
very common and were widely distributed in all forest streams, along with
the less common Tenagogonus insularis at the swampy or quiet edges of
the streams in all forested areas. Ptilomera tigrina was also common in
most flowing forest streams with the exception of the stream at the Jungle
Fall Valley.
Three gerrids, Cylindrostethus malayensis Polhemus, 1994 (= C.
costalis Cheng & Fernando, 1969), Esakia fernandoi Cheng and Ventidius
hungerfordi Cheng, previously collected from Sungei Seletar in 1965 (Cheng,
1965; Cheng & Fernando, 1969) were not found in this study. Sungei Seletar
was the biggest stream in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve before it
was converted into a reservoir in the early 1970s. The interruption of the
water system probably accounted for the possible extinction of these three
species that inhabited larger flowing water bodies. The survival of the
present-day swamp forest species, especially those rare and localized ones
will, therefore, be threatened by the change, loss or pollution of the swamp
forest.
Entomovlia doversi, previously recorded from the MacRitchie forest
(Murphy, 1990) was also not found in this study. It could have been carried
over through the pipeline from the river in Johore (Malaysia) to the Upper
Peirce Reservoir. Only a single specimen was collected after a heavy
downpour that could have caused the water from the reservoir to flow into
the forest stream. This species is common in pristine forest streams in
Peninsular Malaysia. The single record of Ventidius modulatus was also
from the same area.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Kelvin Lim and all student assistants (too many to
name individually) for their hard work on the field and in the laboratory,
and to S. Greasi and several colleagues for their help. Thanks are also
extended to the Director and staff of the National Parks Board for their
cooperation and assistance during the period of this study. We are indebted
to Prof. D.H. Murphy for his advice on this survey and very useful comments
during the preparation of this manuscript. This study has been partially
Semi-aquatic bug fauna 319
supported by research grant RP 830064 from the National University of
Singapore.
References
Cheng, L. 1965. Studies on the Taxonomy and Biology of the Malayan
Gerridae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera). M.Sc. thesis (Unpublished).
University of Singapore.
Cheng, L. & C.H. Fernando. 1969. A taxonomic study of the Malayan
Gerridae (Hemiptera:Heteroptera) with notes on their biology and
distribution. Oriental Insects. 3: 97-160.
Corlett, R.T. 1988. Bukit Timah: the history and significance of a small
rain-forest reserve. Environmental Conservation. 15: 37-44.
Esaki, T. 1926. The water striders of the subfamily Halobatinaae in the
Hungarian National Museum. Annales Musei Nationalis Hungarici.
23: 117-164.
Esaki, T. 1930. New or little-known Gerridae from the Malay Peninsula.
Journal of the Federated Malay Museums. 14: 13-24.
Fernando, C.H. & L. Cheng. 1974. A preliminary study of the fauna and
distribution of aquatic Hemiptera in Malaysia and Singapore. Journal of
the Federated Malay Museums. 19: 21-44.
Murphy, D.H. 1990. Walkers on water - an account of the pleuston of
Singapore. In: L.M. Chou & P.K.L. Ng (eds.). Essays in Zoology.
Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore. pp. 153-168.
Polhemus, J.T. & D.A. Polhemus. 1995a. The Trepobatinae (Heteroptera:
Gerridae) of New Guinea and surrounding regions, with a review of the
world fauna. Pt 3. Tribe Trepobatini. Entomologia Scandinavica. 26: 97-
VT;
Polhemus, J.T. & D.A. Polhemus. 1995b. Revision of the genus Hydrometra
Latreille in Indochina and the Western Malay Archipelago (Heteroptera:
Hydrometridae). Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 43: 9-72.
van Martens, E. 1876. Die Pruessische Expedition nach Ost-Asien. Verlag
der k6niglichen Geheimen Ober-hofbuchdruckerei, Berlin. pp. 228-243.
Yang, C.M. & D.A. Polhemus. 1994. Notes on Rhagovelia Mayr (Hemiptera:
Velidae) from Singapore, with description of a new species. Raffles
Bulletin of Zoology. 42: 987-993.
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 321-331.
Water Beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera) in the Nature
Reserves of Singapore
MICHAEL BALKE', LARS HENDRICH? AND C.M. YANG?
‘Institut fiir Zoologie, Freie Universitat Berlin, KGnigin-Luise-Strasse 1-3,
D-14195 Berlin, Germany
*Berlin-Forschung, Freie Universitat Berlin, Gartnerstrasse 3,
D-12207 Berlin, Germany
*Zoological Reference Collection, Department of Biological Sciences,
National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260
Abstract
Of the 36 species of aquatic beetles recognised here, 17 are rated threatened. Two rare
species of Microdytes (Dytiscidae) were only found in a small springlet in the Bukit Timah
Nature Reserve. Nee Soon Swamp Forest has the highest diversity as well as the highest
number of locally threatened water beetle species in the Nature Reserves.
Introduction
Conservationists and systematists nowadays agree that most species can
only be saved when habitats of adequate size can be protected (Polhemus,
1993; Samways, 1994). However, conservation action with clear management
strategies on a rather limited geographical scale is also frequently needed.
This is especially true in areas that have already experienced considerable
disturbance for a long period of time. To facilitate such action,
biomonitoring groups are needed to determine the state of a given habitat.
In wetland management, water beetles prove to be one such group,
especially when microhabitats such as springs, low order streams or small
waterholes require evaluation (Balke & Hendrich, 1991; Foster, 1991;
Hendrich & Balke, 1993). The theoretical background characterising water
beetle communities in terms of their conservation value, too, has been well
worked out (e.g., Eyre & Rushton, 1989; Foster et al., 1990; Richoux, 1994;
Larson, 1997).
Balke and Hendrich (Hendrich & Balke, 1995; Balke et al., 1997a,
1997b) have successfully utilised water beetles in the course of numerous
environmental impact assessments in Germany, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Several species of water beetle are to date not only included in regional
red lists in Europe but also in the latest IUCN Red List of Threatened
Animals (IUCN, 1996). Moreover, detailed conservation plans are in hand
for two European species of diving beetles (Foster, 1996a, 1996b). These
322 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
are target species by the law in the European Community (EC), where
every suitable aquatic habitat within their respective ranges must be
monitored for the two beetle species before the land can be used for
purposes other than conservation. As adequate observations on the
distribution and biology of Southeast Asian water beetles have now become
available, we believe that several factors could make them a useful
biomonitoring group here as well: 1) the group is species rich; 2) they are
present in virtually every type of fresh and brackish water habitat; 3) the
group has numerous species confined to particular microhabitats; 4)
knowledge of the group’s taxonomic status is improving rapidly; 5) there is
a good general knowledge of most groups; and 6) the group is represented
by some large or especially colourful or enigmatic species, which may
attract public interest (Hendrich, 1995).
The term “water beetle’ as used here, does not representa
phylogenetic unit, such as a family or superfamily. Rather, this is an arbitrary
umbrella term for several beetle groups. For convenience, we refer to
beetles spending most of their adult stage in the water as ‘water beetles’.
Of these, Dytiscidae (diving beetles) and Hydrophilidae (true water beetles)
are the most species-rich groups in Singapore.
As early as the 1870s, Singapore was the type locality for numerous
water beetles, such as the highly threatened Copelatus minutissimus Balfour-
Browne, 1939. The holotypes of Hydrovatus pisiformis Bistro6m, 1996 and
Hydrovatus stridulus Bistro6m, 1996 are the Saunders’s material collected
from Singapore in 1920s (Bistr6m, 1996). Among the collections made by
H.N. Ridley at the beginning of the century, Lacconectus corayi Brancucci,
1986, is a species no longer found in Singapore.
Yang (1992) listed 28 species of aquatic beetles from the Lower
Peirce forest but her list is incomplete. Our aim is to evaluate the water
beetle fauna based on recent surveys of the nature reserves in Singapore
and identify the species that appear to be most threatened in Singapore
and to discuss possible conservation action.
Methods
The survey area of this study included all water drainages in the Central
Catchment Nature Reserve and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (Figure 1)
carried out during the period 1992 to 1997. Every type of water body was
investigated. Those that appeared to be of particular interest according to
our field experience were most intensively sampled. Interesting sites were
revisited for observations on population dynamics and habitat succession.
S25
Water beetles
~ ] “i \
, NEE SOON” }.
>
l betes PN RIO Pe se AA RRR et RE RE RA A AA LR AAR RP RI AH Na ae
Figure 1. Map of Nature Reserves with an inset showing its location in Singapore. Central
Catchment Nature Reserve (CCNR) and Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (BTNR) are separated
by the Bukit Timah Expressway (BKE). Dotted lines = bounderies of Nature Reserves.
324 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Larger water bodies were sampled with an aquatic dip net and a set
of kitchen sieves of different diameters. The substrate obtained by strongly
sweeping the net through mats of submerged grasses, aquatic plants, or
open water, was placed on a 1 m x 1 m nylon panel for drainage. The
substrate was then examined for the presence of the insects that, in most
cases, within a couple of minutes exhibited themselves by running. Less
active species or individuals were traced by carefully sorting the substrate
with a pair of forceps. Beetles from springs and small streams could
frequently be directly sampled with an aspirator or a pair of forceps.
Specimens collected were fixed in 70-90% alcohol, and brought to
the Zoological Reference Collection (National University of Singapore)
for further processing and setting. Species that could be identified on site
were immediately released.
Results
A total of 36 species of water beetles from the survey are presented in
Table 1. Several additional genera and species are currently under study
and additional fieldwork is likely to provide additions to the list. A couple
of species, most probably undescribed, are so far known only from
Singapore. We have made some comments on ecological preferences of
the species. Some species identified as ‘target species’ that deserve our
special attention and conservation efforts have the following characteristics:
1) they are presently rare due to threats caused by man, 2) they have clear
taxonomic status, 3) they have known habitat preferences, and 4) they
have low ecological tolerance.
Of the 36 species surveyed in this study, 17 are threatened or identified
as target species (Table 1). Fifteen species also occur outside the reserves
(‘other areas’) but of these, only three are threatened. Thirteen species are
restricted to different types of forest habitats of which 12 are target species.
Discussion
Though rather isolated from potential source areas that might contribute
to a re-colonisation of wetlands in Singapore, our results suggest that the
Nature Reserves contain communities of water beetles typical of lowland
sites in Southeast Asia. However, the sites in Singapore are either relict
sites (Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Nee Soon Swamp Forest) or in many
cases secondary (many parts of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve).
Thus, their water beetle fauna deserve special attention. Two important
areas are briefly discussed here:
Pe
Water beetles
325
Table 1. Preliminary checklist of water beetles from nature reserves in Singapore,
with data on their ecology and conservation status. (t - temporary habitats; p -
permanent habitats; lo - lotic species; In - lentic species; R - restricted in distribution
to forest sites; bold species names and numbers - target species.)
Other |
Species Bukit | Nee | Mac Ecology) Forest
Timah | Soon | Ritchie | areas Species
Nature ‘Swamp
| Reserve} Forest
Family NOTERIDAE
Neohydrocoptus bivittis (Motschulsky, 1859)| —- + + + p/In/lo_ -
Neohydrocoptus distinctus (Wehncke, 1883) - + S ) pt inf lo. 1 -
Neohydrocoptus frontalis (Régimbart, 1899) - + - p/ In .
Hydrocanthus indicus Wehncke, 1876 - : + - p/ In R
Family DYTISCIDAE
Hydrovatus maai Bistré6m, 1996 - + . - p/ In .
Hydrovatus pisiformis Bistrom, 1996 - + - p/ In R
Hydrovatus pudicus (Clark, 1863) : + - p/ In -
Hydrovatus rufoniger (Clark, 1863) + : ~ p/ In
Hydrovatus saundersi Bistrom, 1996 - + ; : p/ In -
Hydrovatus sinister Sharp, 1882 - + : ~ p/ In
Hydrovatus stridulus Bistrém, 1996 - + + p/ In
AHydrovatus sumatrensis Sharp, 1882 - + - - p/ In -
Microdytes elgae Hendrich, Balke & + - : : p/ lo R
Wewalka, 1995
Microdytes pasiricus (Csiki, 1937) ~ - - - p/ lo R
Laccophilus pulicarius Sharp, 1882 - + - sey (Ais hs Co
Laccophilus ritsemae Régimbart, 1880 - + - SUMAN © 84g a
Copelatus andamanicus Régimbart, 1899 + + + + t/ In R
Copelatus minutissimus Balfour-Browne, - + : - t/ In R
1939
Lacconectus krikkeni Brancucci, 1986 ~ a - - p/In/lo R
Hydaticus bipunctatus Régimbart, 1899 + + - + p/ In -
Hydaticus sexguttatus Régimbart, 1899 - + - p/ In R
Family HYDROPHILIDAE
Allocotocerus muelleri (Kirsch, 1875) - - + . p/ In .
Amphiops mater (Sharp, 1873) : ~ + Ae Ea Ley
Helochares lentus Sharp, 1890 : + . + p/ In -
Enochrus esuriens (Walker, 1858) + : + + p/lIn/lo_ -
Enochrus gaggermeieri Hebauer, 1995 + + + =. Lgpl ini to... R
Paracymus evanescens Sharp, 1890 + - - + p/ In
Coelostoma subditum d’Orchymont, 1936 + - - + P/ In
326 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Species Bukit | Nee | Mac | Other Ecology Forest |
Timah | Soon | Ritchie | areas Species |
Nature [Swamp |
Reserve| Forest |
Family HYDRAENIDAE |
Hydraena sp. 1 4 - - - p/ lo R |
Hydraena sp. 2 + : . - p/ In |
Hydraena sp. 3 - + - - p/ lo R
Family GYRINIDAE
Dineutus spinosus (Fabricius, 1781) - - + - p/ lo -
Orectochilus productus Regimbart, 1883 + + + p/lo/In_ -
Orectochilus oxygonus Regimbart, 1907 + + - p/lo/In_ -
Orectochilus andamanicus Regimbart, 1883 + - : p/ lo R
Orectochilus corniger Zaitzev, 1910 - + - - pilo R |
36/ 17 VES << 25 Whe BA dn Deis 13/12
Bukit Timah Nature Reserve
One of the most interesting sites we sampled is the small forest springlet in
Taban Valley (Plate la) - a true relict site. It was found to contain viable
populations of three target species, Microdytes elgae (Plate 1b), Lacconectus
krikkeni and Hydraena sp. 1, while a fourth target species is represented
by a relict population only, 1.e., Microdytes pasiricus. For three of these
species, this is the only known locality in Singapore (Table 1). Microdytes
species are rare and rather localised in distribution not only in Singapore
but also elsewhere (Hendrich, 1995; Hendrich & Balke, 1995). Thus, for
the water beetles, the Bukit Timah site has conservation implications at
the global level (Balke et al., 1997a). At the local level, the site should be
considered a potential source from which other suitable Singapore sites
could be re-colonised, assuming viable populations could be maintained at
Bukit Timah over longer periods of time.
Briffett (1990) listed the following threats to the Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve: a) construction of the Bukit Timah Expressway has cut off the
forest from the larger water catchment forest area, reducing the migratory
interflow of flora and fauna (Fig. 1); b) the general drying-up of the forest
threatens freshwater life that is now in danger of extinction; and c) heavy
quarrying has resulted in many landslides over the years, causing several
streams to be diverted or disrupted and endangering rare freshwater life.
Water beetles a9
With regards to management of the area, strategies to prevent further
draining of the sites must be found. In fact, the above-mentioned water
beetles could be used as an umbrella group here, and their protection will
save many other rare animals, too. Further draining will, inevitably, make
them disappear from the local scene.
Nee Soon Swamp Forest
Of the expected streamfauna, only one species, Hydraena sp. 3, was
detected. The primary swamp nearby with a rich vegetation structure (Plate
1c) fully contained what should be there, i.e., a species-rich community of
Hydrovatus species. Species of this genus are typical inhabitants of semi-
exposed to exposed swampy sites and can thus be found in a wide variety
of water bodies, such as Kent Ridge Park. However, a species-rich
community, like Nee Soon Swamp Forest with at least six species, can only
be found in primary environments for reasons not yet fully understood.
Moreover, five of these Hydrovatus species have not been collected from
localities other than Nee Soon Swamp Forest in Singapore (Table 1), and
two of them are threatened fauna. It is notable that the populations of
most species appear viable. However, a single specimen of the rare
Copelatus minutissimus was collected here as well (Balke, 1994). This species
is an inhabitant of small waterholes in forested areas and is among the
rarest of the Southeast Asian water beetles (Balke, 1994). It probably
faces extinction now, and we will include it in the next edition of the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Animals. More sites deeper in the forest will have
to be surveyed to attempt to detect a population of this species.
The whirligig beetles, Orectochilus andamanicus and O. corniger,
were both found in well-shaded streams in the Central Catchment Nature
Reserve swamp forest, mainly located in the Nee Soon area. O. andamanicus
is a very rare and threatened species in Singapore as only one to two
specimens per site were collected from the bigger streams. Although
distributed from India to Peninsular Malaysia, it appears to be a very rare
species (Mazzoldi, pers. comm.).
Without doubt Nee Soon Swamp Forest is the most important site
for water beetles that warrants full conservation attention. Additional
fieldwork will undoubtedly reveal many more species of interest. However,
any lowering of the groundwater level would be disastrous to the swamp
forest species. Management strategies should take into consideration the
creation of small water holes in the forest that may serve as new breeding
habitats for the rare Copelatus species and a range of other rare species
not discussed here.
328 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Conclusion
Preliminary surveys show that Singapore is home to a relatively rich water
beetle fauna. It still offers the opportunity to discover either new or rare
and little known species. However, those species adapted to primary habitats
can be extremely vulnerable, some even on the verge of (local) extinction.
To maintain the diversity presently observed, more proactive conservation
actions need to be taken.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank H.K. Lua, K.L. Yeo, Kelvin Lim (ZRC) and
student assistants for their hard work in the field and in the laboratory:
Paolo Mazzoldi (Brescia, Italy) for his help in identification and comments
on Gyrinidae, the Director of the National Parks Board and his staff
members for their cooperation and assistance during the period of the
survey, and for preparing Figure 1. This study was partially supported by
research grant RP 830064 from the National University of Singapore.
Michael Balke thanks the “Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes” and
Lars Hendrich the “Berlin-Forschung” for financial support.
References
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Water beetles 331
Michael Balke
Michael Balke
Plate la.
Plate 1b.
Lars Hendrich
Michael Balke
Plate lc.
Plate 1d.
Plate 1. a. A small springlet in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. b. Microdytes elgae, a rare
dytiscid from Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. ¢. A species rich habitat for Hydrovatus in Nee
Soon Swamp Forest. d. Hydaticus bipunctatus, a forest pool species.
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 333-352.
Odonata Biodiversity in the Nature Reserves of
Singapore
D. H. MurpHy
Department of Biological Sciences
National University of Singapore
Kent Ridge, Singapore 119260
Abstract
An account is given of Odonata collected during the survey of the Nature Reserves. Most
of the species described from Singapore material in A.R. Wallace’s collection in 1856 still
occur. A total of 79 species have been recorded within the Nature Reserves, including an
endemic damselfly, Drepanosticta quadrata. Eight species are known only from Nee Soon
Swamp Forest.
Introduction
The Odonata are a relatively well studied group whose aquatic larvae are
carnivorous and thus not limited by distribution of specific plants, but
which are known, at least in some cases, to be affected by the nutrient
status and ambient properties of the water they live in.
The insect order Odonata (Plate 1) consisting of dragonflies and the
smaller, more slender forms called damselflies, is represented in Southeast
Asia by members of 14 families. Where known, all regional forms have
aquatic larval stages so a biodiversity survey of the group must be related
to the diversity of wetlands available in the area, even though many species
range far from their breeding grounds as adults. However, there remain
many species for which the larvae remain unknown and the existence of
terrestrial larvae in other regions, such as in Megalagrion oahuensis in
Hawaii (Williams, 1936), suggest some caution even in this assumption.
The Central Catchment Nature Reserve (CCNR) together with the
adjacent Bukit Timah Nature Reserve lies near the centre of Singapore,
remote from the coast so that essentially maritime species can be at most
only casual visitors. The function of the area as a water catchment implies
that polluted waters are essentially excluded, though in fact some
institutional land, golf courses, parkland and a closely monitored zoological
garden do fall within its drainage area.
The reserve area lies wholly within the central granitoid core of the
island at the focus of the main headwaters of streams flowing north, south
and east, now impounded to form four reservoirs supplying the potable
334 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
water grid of the city, and whose input is supplemented by water imported
from Johore. The high ground is largely ‘tree country’ in the sense of
Johnson (1967), though of very varied forest quality, mostly a mosaic of
secondary vegetation with a few pockets retaining primary character.
The odonate fauna may be expected to reflect the extent to which
the original forest stream, pool and swamp biota have survived the intense
human exploitation over almost two centuries as described by Corlett (1992).
It will also reflect the impact of large water bodies wholly foreign to the
original hydrography of the island, the loss of major open streams to
impoundment or canalisation, and, most recently, the conversion of a largely
rural and agricultural terrain to one now wholly urban, industrial and
recreational. This study of the CCNR can only address some of these
aspects. An account of the odonate fauna of the island of Singapore as a
whole is deferred to a later communication.
History
The first collection of Singapore dragonflies seemed to be that assembled
by Alfred Russell Wallace during his six-month stay in 1854 prior to his
travels through the Malay Archipelago. No list was ever published, but in
a short paper entitled ‘The entomology of Malacca’, Wallace (1855)
mentioned that in Malacca he ‘... nearly doubled my collection, which now
amounts to 72 species of true dragonflies.” He must have taken over 36
species in Singapore but even so only 26 species have been accounted for
in literature available to me. None of the Wallace material could be
unequivocally assigned to the existing CCNR since his material was simply
labelled ‘Singapore’.
The next important contribution was by Laidlaw (1931) and this
time, using material in the Raffles Museum, he gave actual location, date
and collector, writing ‘I have attempted to note all records for Singapore
as it occurs to me that such records may be of particular interest in view of
the many changes which have been in progress in the Island in the last
hundred years or so.’ Laidlaw himself seemed never to have collected in
Singapore and the material came from collectors who were not specialists
in Odonata capable of specific search. Most locations mentioned were not
within the reserve.
The next important contribution was a comprehensive catalogue for
the Malesian region (Lieftinck, 1954) in which Singapore island is frequently
cited specifically but without internal locations. Although many interesting
new records were made, it was striking that very few of the forest species
found by Wallace had been recollected. Far from indicating their extinction
Odonata biodiversity 335
however, this appeared only to reflect limitations of the collecting habits
of the workers concerned. After the Lieftinck catalogue, only a few small
lists were on record that could be localised to the CCNR area (Paulson,
undated; Iwasaki, 1981; Kiauta & Kiauta, 1982: Yokoi, 1996) besides
occasional notes in special literature (e.g., Murphy, 1994).
Methods
During the formation of the collection on which this paper is based, an
attempt was made to reach all known stream-lines in the reserve, many of
which were remote from normal access (Figure 1). A policy of mapping all
penetrations of the area was adopted and in fact the geographical survey
became a significant component of the work in its own right. The problem
of locating and recording individual collecting sites in such remote terrain
presented some difficulty.
Figure 1. Locations of sampling sites.
336 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Since the CCNR has most (three out of four) of its stream systems
impounded to form reservoirs, this allowed us to code the sectors in the
following manner. In each reservoir, the major inlets were lettered
anticlockwise (A being the outlet) and streams entering each inlet received
this code with appropriate subscripts to identify them and their various
tributaries. A similar system was found workable in the unimpounded Nee
Soon Swamp Forest.
Adult dragonflies were collected by hand-net at selected points during
the mapping operation, wherever local conditions permitted. Because many
forest streamlines were choked with hooked rattans or pandans, this was
inefficient and some records by sighting alone had to be made. In genera
with closely similar species (e.g., Gynacantha and Vestalis) only a generic
name could be applied and in such cases had to be discounted in mapping
distribution. A limited amount of larval collection and rearing was also
undertaken. Identification relied on available regional literature and an
unpublished generic key of my own, and all have been checked by M.
Hamalainen. Names conform to those in van Tol (1992).
Results
Table 1 lists the dragonfly and damselfly species collected from the reserve
area during the survey period 1994 to 1998 and some previous confirmed
records. A total of 79 Odonate species have been recorded from within
reserve limits out of a total of more than 100 now known from the whole
island. This total now excludes some species previously reported in error.
The Singapore list now included 36 species not previously recorded from
the State, most of these taken during the period of this survey although
not all from within the reserve area. Some of these were common species,
which were to be expected but some are rarities of some significance. For
example, Aethriamanta aethra (Plate 2a) is the first record for Singapore
and the Malay Peninsula and Orthetrum luzonicum is normally considered
a montane species but found in Singapore.
Probably the commonest dragonfly in Singapore is Neurothemis
fluctuans whose brown-winged males are seen everywhere around marshy
spots, grassy pools and open stream sides. It penetrated the CCNR along
road-sides and open tracks and can be common quite deep in open
secondary forest. Yet, this species was never associated with true forest
streams. Its very abundance might have contributed to our failure to record
the related Neurothemis disparilis, reliably recorded from Singapore
(Laidlaw, 1931), which perhaps could be mistaken for a teneral or female
of N. fluctuans.
|
Odonata biodiversity 33
Table 1. Dragonflies and damselflies collected during the Nature Reserves survey.
(1-New Record for Singapore, 2—Singapore is type locality)
[Species —~=S”S*S*”dStat in Nate Reserves | Singapore general
(Damselflies)
ee ee ee
2 eS Sen
Ce nn ee
i Eee
2 ee eee ee
Libellago hyalina’ Rare (Nee Soon only) -
Libellago lineata
Family Euphaeidae
Family Lestidae
Locally common (MacRitchie only) |
Platylestes heterostylus ?Bukit Timah Daneanto ge sia
Family Megapodagrionidae |
a ee Ce
_ jhe ence ei ee
2 ey Ee
[Coelicciaalbicauda’ | Rare,1SeletarU |=
[Coeliccia octogesima® | Locallycommon |=
ec idle a
Family Pseudagrionidae
338 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Status in Nature Reserves
Occasional
Local
Local naa lee a
Swamp forest only beast eal a
Rare, reservoir ete a
Local a iNaieiiis’ ;
Local i
Local
Local
Occasional
Frequent
Common, reservoirs
Common, open streams
Rare hoo
Rare Easiarices
Local U.Mac.cony, ps
Nt ee eat ie
eS
Local, widespread ieaaiierecmivin =...
Local, Nee Soon catchment ae
Local, widespread jarred eas
Lecce ea ae Sch cece eee
Pe inidbienaie 20
|Common
Suborder ANISOPTERA
(Dragonflies)
1 (mist net) Common
Visual sightings
Rare Old record
Rare, Nee Soon Swamp Forest
hee: cae ea aa here a a
eeramiwa
Common (reservoirs)
ket hime 6:03,
Local, Nee Soon SF
Local, Nee Soon SF
Odonata biodiversity 339
ee lees [shee ee)
ee eee
Meee ieee ee
ohh aaa ee
ia Me esl
paarvomueRG
Chonan pn € Sai a te a Pe STE
asad
ee ae ees ef
eee ee
OR Goa SO eh
2 SSS a
PAV tines oo Le ea
340 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Local (open stream)
|Tyriobaptatorrida | Frequent =
More locally, open ground with wet areas supports the tiny
Nannophya pygmaea, Rhyothemis obsolescens and common damselflies
such as Agriocnemis femina and Ceriagrion cerinorubellum. The blue
coloured Pseudagrion, P. microcephalum (Plate 2b) and P. australasiae,
occur along open stream lines as well as around reservoirs. Large active
libellulid dragonflies hover over and near open waters and include
Orthetrum sabina, O. chrysis, O. testaceum, O. glaucum and O. luzonicum,
Crocothemis servilia, Rhodothemis rufa, Trithemis aurora, T. festiva, and
the smaller Aethriamanta gracilis, Brachydiplax chalybea and Diplacodes
nebulosa. The large gomphid /ctinogomphus decoratus is also very common.
Open spaces far from water, especially high ground such as the
helicopter landing site near Chestnut Avenue, also have large populations
of Rhyothemis phyllis, Pantala flavescens and Trithemis aurora, and some
rare records such as Camacinia gigantea. Road-sides with temporary pools
may have local populations of Diplacodes trivialis.
Although these common species are likely to be those usually seen
by the public, very few of them penetrate into truly closed forest (an
exception is Orthetrum chrysis), and it is the forested water bodies that
were the principal object of the present survey. Of the nine species originally
collected by Wallace in 1854 and said to be based on Singapore material,
all but one (Libellago stigmatizans) still survive and are found in the reserve.
Of the others, Libellago aurantiaca is now confined to the Nee Soon
drainage (but would probably have been collected by Wallace in the upper
reaches of the Pang Sua, which would have been swamp forest at that
time). Of the others, Coeliccia octogesima (Plate 3a), Drepanosticta quadrata
(Plate 3b), Onychargia atrocyana, Prodasineura interrupta (Plate 3d), P.
notostigma and Agrionoptera sexlineata are still found scattered widely
throughout the central catchment area near forested streams or swamps.
Devadatta argyoides is now virtually confined to Bukit Timah and Teinobasis
ruficollis to secondary forest pools at the stream convergence of the Upper
MacRitchie basin. Interestingly, this latter point would have been accessible
by cart track in Wallace’s day, though it is more likely that the species
were more widespread in his day
Odonata biodiversity 34]
Eight species now appear to be totally confined to the Nee Soon
Swamp Forest, Burmagomphus divaricatus, Heliogomphus kelantanensis,
Libellago aurantiaca, L. hyalina, Microgomphus chelifer, Risiophlebia
dohrni, Tetracanthagyna plagiata, and Vestalis amoena. Six others,
Amphicnemis gracilis, Macrogomphus quadratus (Plate 2c), Orchithemis
pulcherrima (Plate 2d), Prodasineura collaris, P. interrupta and P.
notostigma, are also common there, but extend elsewhere in forested
streamlines.
Seven other species, Archibasis viola, Drepanosticta quadrata,
Euphaea impar, Onychargia atrocyana, Podolestes orientalis (Plate 3c),
Tyriobapta torrida, and Vestalis amethystina, occasionally appear in the
fringes of the swamp forest but are more typical of feeder streams or
swamps elsewhere in the catchment. Of these, Euphaea impar and Vestalis
amethystina are believed to favour higher water speeds and often indicate
erosion areas such as those in the Upper MacRitchie basin (Figure 2). The
distinctive larva of Euphaea is found among trapped leaves in fast water.
NV Erosion
/V Silt plume
/V Operational Units
/ Streams
‘High ground
ei!
Figure 2. Sites of erosion processes currently or historically likely to have affected dragonfly
distribution.
342 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Secondary swamp forest variants also exist (Figure 3). At the head
of inlets of the low-lying reservoirs (MacRitchie and Lower Peirce) where
the stream profile is very shallow, long narrow ‘ribbon swamps’ with braided
stream lines have developed since the impoundment. They have a very
depauperate tree flora but offer conditions in which some of the swamp
forest odonates, such as Amphicnemis and Macrogomphus, have become
established. Higher up the water courses, uneroded streams often alternate
between fast flowing reaches and level swampy reaches which I call ‘step
swamps’. Whether this is a general feature of granitic topography or perhaps
a consequence of prior land use is uncertain, but some of the step swamps
are particularly favoured by Drepanosticta, Coeliccia, Podolestes and
Archibasis viola, though these species can certainly be found elsewhere.
/¥ Streams
’, High ground
= Swamp forest
— Ribbon swamp
Ne - Step swamp
r=
Figure 3. Distribution of various kinds of water body in and near the reserve area.
Odonata biodiversity 343
As an example of species distribution, Figure 4 plots records of the
three species of Prodasineura. None of these have been found outside the
CCNR in Singapore and the genus is not known from Bukit Timah. Too
few larvae have been seen to throw light on breeding conditions and only
one of these was reared to adult so we do not know how to discriminate
species from larvae. Nevertheless, adult distribution shows intriguing
differences. Prodasineura collaris is widely scattered and appears associated
with still waters choked with leaves. Prodasineura notostigma is common
over deeply-shaded open streams. Prodasineura interrupta occurred together
with P. notostigma in the lower part of the Nee Soon Swamp Forest and
was widespread in the upper Nee Soon basin where it was the only species
seen. It remains unexplained why this species is, on present evidence,
confined to the Nee Soon catchment, since it is found in riparian galleries
not obviously different from those in other drainage systems. The absence
of P. notostigma from the Upper Nee Soon basin 1s also remarkable.
Figure 4. Distribution of three species of Prodasineura.
344 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
The convergence streams and pools of the Upper MacRitchie basin
(Figure 5) support some species not, or rarely, seen elsewhere. The
artificially straightened lower reaches of streams H and J caused berms to
impound ponds to which several rare species are now confined, notably
Argiocnemis rubescens and Teinobasis ruficollis. Some of these ponds are
fairly open with scattered emergent small trees of Alstonia spatulata but
have well shaded edges, while smaller ponds under full shade also exist.
Other species breeding here include 7yriobapta and Lathrecista that are
more widespread. Also restricted to this area, but along the open streams,
is Agriocnemis nana. Why this location should have localised species is not
entirely clear. However it is speculated that these forest pools may represent
a habitat formerly more widespread in lowland Singapore in situations
now lost to urbanisation or cultivation. The species may have succeeded in
colonising this secondary habitat before their original and natural habitats
were completely destroyed. However there are possibly other contributing
factors.
The recent appearance of Pseudagrion pruinosum and Copera
marginipes in the nearby meter pond area may relate to seepage of enriched
water from Upper Peirce, as may the presence of the calcareous alga Chara.
Figure 5. Location of the convergence streams and pools of the Upper MacRitchie basin.
Odonata biodiversity 345
Upper Peirce Reservoir is now principally a holding reservoir for water
imported from Johore and has potassium levels ten times higher than that
of purely local water. Similar levels occur in some headwater streams
originating close to Upper Peirce but which feed into MacRitchie. Water
quality may also be a factor in the presence of Devadatta in one location
(MacRitchie stream J). This species is otherwise restricted to Bukit Timah
whose streams also show higher potassium levels due to drainage from
freshly decomposing granite. Throughout its wide range in South East
Asia, Devadatta seems intolerant of the nutrient deficient waters typical of
forest streams on deep mature regolith. In addition, meter pond stream H
(Figure 5) until recently received water through the Kallang Tunnel also
originating in Johore and the possibility of larvae having washed through
cannot be discounted.
Dragonflies are less often seen in dry-land forest remote from water
but certainly do occur there. This is especially true of females that may
tend to leave the breeding sites to forage before returning to mate and lay
eggs. Females of Coeliccia octogesima, Vestalis amethystina and
Amphicnemis have been taken so, but never their males. This may be why
C. octogesima was described from a female, while the actually more
commonly seen males were unknown until this present survey. However,
Tholymis tillarga males are quite often seen flying in deep shade. This
species is commonly attracted to lights and is widely considered to be
nocturnal, but in the forest it is clearly active in daytime. Cratilla metallica
and one or more of the three species of Gynacantha known from Singapore
are also seen in deep forest. Pericnemis stictica and Lyriothemis cleis breed
in ‘phytotelms’ (tree-holes and bamboos holding water) and are apparently
widespread, though not often seen as adults. Their habits would not restrict
them to stream-lines.
The reservoirs themselves support some species not entering forest.
The oldest reservoir, MacRitchie, has three species not found elsewhere,
Archibasis melanocyana, Chalybiothemis fluviatilis, and Lestes praemorsus
as well as common open-water species of Orthetrum, Rhyothemis, Trithemis,
Epophthalmia and Ictinogomphus, which are found around all reservoirs
and open streams throughout the island. The reservoirs have not been a
major issue during this survey although, of course, some material has been
assembled, including the three species confined to MacRitchie. Several
species recorded only from other reservoirs are known to be associated
with unstable or even maritime conditions (e.g., Trithemis pallidinervis and
Ischnura senegalensis).
Of species known to be present in Singapore but not recorded during
this survey of the CCNR, several are high flying or nocturnal forms that
are certainly there but were not collected by the methods used. Several
346 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
very common forms associated with small open water bodies, maritime
conditions or enriched or polluted waters are either absent or extremely
local, as would be expected in a controlled water catchment where such
habitats are excluded. Thus Brachythemis contaminata that is one of the
commonest species around shallow grassy ponds such as exist in the nearby
golf courses, is hardly ever seen even in immediately adjacent arms of the
reservoirs.
Discussion
Of the recorded names accepted as valid, seven are considered suspect as
records. N. tullia, P. laidlawii and Rhinocypha sp. were listed from Nee
Soon in a publication in Japanese attributed to Iwasaki (1981) after his
death. On translation this proved to be his edited field notes, originally
using Japanese names of Japanese species with which he was familiar, but
with scientific names added apparently by an editor. He appeared to have
been unfamiliar with tropical species at the time of collection and used
Japanese species names as a rough guide, the editor then attempted to
match these with known regional species. His exact collecting sites were
mapped and have been revisited but none of his species were found there.
His N. tullia may be Tyriobapta torrida, and P. laidlawii may be
Prodasineura collaris, the only species now found at that site. Several other
names though valid are to some extent suspect. Thus, Vestalis amethystina
is recorded from where we now find only Vestalis amoena, possibly because
former records of V. amoena from Singapore have been revised as V.
amethystina (Lieftinck, 1965) and we now know that both species occur.
Agriocnemis pygmaea was reported with a note that its thorax was unusually
thick compared with Japanese material. Today the site has only Agriocnemis
femina. That there could have been faunistic changes is, of course, possible
especially since oiling for mosquito control is carried out at the site specified.
One record of N. intermedia by Yokoi (1996) from a site near the
Zoological Gardens is unlikely since the species is Indian. Possibly this was
Neurothemis disparilis, also a species we have failed to recognise. Material
from Bukit Timah attributed to Indolestes by Murphy and given to D.
Paulson in 1980 may be the origin of his informally circulated record of
Platylestes heterostylus.
The widely cited records of Urothemis abbotti appear to originate
from the original author (Laidlaw, 1927) mentioning a damaged female
Singapore specimen when describing U. abbotti from Thailand. All material
of this genus examined since have proved to be Urothemis signata bisignata.
A record of Orolestes wallacei by Laidlaw (1931) was based on a specimen
Odonata biodiversity 347
“said to be in the British Museum and not seen by me...”. It is a possible
record but remains unconfirmed to this day.
A total of 24 species collected during this survey are new records for
Singapore (Table 1). Some of these are common and were to be expected.
In total, 79 species have been recorded as documented specimens from
within reserve limits with a further eight likely to be present but with
habits precluding collection, such as being nocturnal or high flying. The
species listed as now confined to Nee Soon Swamp Forest were probably
more widespread in the past. Vestalis amoena was historically recorded
(correctly) from Bukit Timah. Two species are distinctive of Bukit Timah -
Indolestes and Devadatta argyoides. All other species so far known in Bukit
Timah also occur in the CCNR. The hill does, however, need more intensive
survey than it has received.
An additional eight species recorded more or less reliably in the
literature have not been seen (or at least recognised) but are not necessarily
forms to be expected in the reserve area. Some may have habits (such as
high perching) that preclude easy collection and only an extended rearing
programme would be likely to reveal them. Only for three species, normally
associated with habitats such as large rivers that have now been totally
converted in Singapore, can extinction be strongly suspected.
Five historically recorded species may have become extinct -
Brachygonia oculata, Burmagomphus plagiatus, Dysphaea dimidiata,
Libellago stigmatizans and Neurobasis chinensis. Burmagomphus plagiatus
was a reliable larval record by Lieftinck (1964) from the lower reaches of
Seletar River now converted to a concrete canal. In addition, Neurothemis
disparilis, Agriocnemis pygmaea and Rhyothemis pygmaea have not been
seen by me, although records of the latter two by Paulson in 1980 are
recent. Even so, none of the extinctions can be taken as absolutely certain,
although very probable.
Among Odonata, only one species (Drepanosticta quadrata) is
believed totally endemic to Singapore, but it is common in several areas
and is not threatened. The genus is known for having many extremely
localized species.
Many species are more or less restricted to tree covered land and
most of these found only in the CCNR and/or Bukit Timah. These include
the eight species mentioned above as only known today from the Nee
Soon Swamp Forest.
The deteriorating conditions in the Upper MacRitchie Basin are
reflected in the odonate fauna in several ways. An apparent extinction that
occurred within the last three decades concerns Neurobasis chinensis (last
taken in Singapore in 1970), extinct probably due to siltation of the stream
marked Jc (Figure 5) where it occurred by construction of the Pan Island
348 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Expressway in 1972. A stand of mature riparian swamp forest in the upper
reach of that stream died out at that time. By 1990 good regrowth had
developed but then the expressway was widened and the whole streamline
again smothered by a new silt surge. Well-established local populations of
Amphicnemis and Coeliccia died out, together with the young secondary
swamp forests in which they had become established between 1993 and
1994. Possibly Onychargia, not seen there since 1989, was also lost. These
species, which are still present elsewhere, will probably recolonise sites
that revert to forest cover. In the lower reach, a population of Agriocnemis
nana was destroyed along with other species and only 7rithemis aurora, a
‘weedy species not formerly present, is found there today.
Finally the question of seasonality has hardly been addressed. Most
species are not significantly seasonal on a regular basis, but some migrants
may be affected by the monsoons. Periods of drought may cause smaller
water bodies to dry out entirely with possible long term consequences for
species with poor dispersal.
Acknowledgements
My thanks to my student helpers, all engaged in collecting and who did
most of the mapping work who are too numerous to name, but Tan Hoe
Teck and Lim Koon were the longest serving and most expert; Mrs. Yang
also fielded teams of collectors who took some material; Dr. Matti
Hamalainen of Helsinki visited Singapore after the project was completed
and who kindly corrected my misidentifications, detected a specimen of
Coeliccia albicauda among Mrs. Yang’s material and provided some
references I had overlooked; Dr. Tan Koh Siang made lengthy translation
from Japanese text that clarified some important issues; and the staff of
the National Parks Board who have been continually supportive as have
my colleagues at the Department of Biology, National University of
Singapore.
References
Corlett, R.T. 1992. The changing urban vegetation . In: A. Gupta & J.
Pitts. Physical Adjustments in a Changing Landscape: The Singapore
Story. Singapore University Press. pp. 190-214.
Iwasaki, M. 1981. Field observation notes in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.
Gracile. 28: 12-26. (in Japanese).
Odonata biodiversity 349
Johnson, D.S. 1967. On the chemistry of freshwaters in southern Malaya
and Singapore. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie. 63: 477-496.
Kiauta, B. & M. Kiauta. 1982. The chromosome numbers of eleven
dragonfly species from Singapore. Notulae Odonatologicae. 1: 164-165.
Laidlaw, F.F. 1927. Description of a new dragonfly from lower Siam
belonging to the genus Urothemis. Proceedings of the United States
National Museum. 70: 1-3.
Laidlaw, F.F. 1931. A list of the dragonflies (Odonata) of the Malay
Peninsula with descriptions of new species. Journal of the Federated
Malay States Museums, Singapore. 16: 175-233, figs. 1-7.
Lieftinck, M.A. 1954. Handlist of Malaysian Odonata. A catalogue of the
dragonflies of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and Borneo, including
the adjacent small islands. Treubia. Suppl. 22: 1 - xi, 1-202.
Lieftinck, M.A. 1964. Some Gomphidae and their larvae, chiefly from the
Malay Peninsula (Odonata). Zoologische Verhandelingen (Leiden).
69: 3-38.
Lieftinck, M.A. 1965. The species group of Vestalis amoena Selys, 1853, in
Sundaland (Odonata, Calopterygidae). Tijdschrift voor Entomologie.
108: 325-364.
Murphy, D.H. 1994. Risiophlebia dohrni. In: P.K.L. Ng & Y.C. Wee (eds.).
The Singapore Red Data Book: Threatened Plants and Animals of
Singapore. The Nature Society, Singapore. pp. 107.
Paulson, D. (undated) Singapore Odonata collected 29 August 1980.
Unpublished report.
van Tol, J. 1992. An annotated index to names of Odonata used in
publications by M. A. Lieftinck. Zoologische Verhandelingen (Leiden).
279: 1—263.
Wallace, A.R. 1855. The entomology of Malacca. Zoologist. 13: 4636-4639.
Williams, F.X. 1936. Biological studies in Hawaiian water-loving insects.
Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. 9: 235-345.
Yokoi, N. 1996. A record of the Odonata from Mandai, Singapore,
Malangpo (Newsletter of the Thai National Office of the International
Odonatological Society) 13: 100.
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
350
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Odonata biodiversity 351
Plate 2. a. Aethriamanta aethra, a first record for Singapore. b. Pseudagrion microcephalum
occurs along open waters such as grassy streams and edges of reservoirs. e. Macrogomphus
quadratus. d. Orchithemis pulcherrima.
S'S)
(Nn
i)
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Plate 3. Some damselflies widespread in forest stream-lines (a—c) and a species from the
Family Protoneuridae (d).a. Male Coeliccia octogesima.b. Drepanosticta quadrata is believed
to be endemic to Singapore. e. Podolestes orientalis. d. Prodasineura interrupta.
Proceedings of the Nature Reserves Survey Seminar.
Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 49 (1997) 353-425.
Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians in the Nature
Reserves of Singapore - Diversity, Abundance and
Distribution
R.C.H. TEO AND S. RAJATHURAITI
Vertebrate Study Group
Nature Society (Singapore)
601, Sims Drive, #04-04/05
Pan-I Complex, Singapore 387382
Abstract
The diversity of mammals, reptiles and amphibians is still high in the Nature Reserves with
a total of 141 indigenous species recorded in the past decade, comprising 44 mammals, 72
reptiles and 25 amphibians. During the four-year survey, there were 10 additions to
Singapore’s checklist of mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and 13 other species were
rediscovered compared with four and ten, respectively, recorded during the six-year period
prior to the survey. This is a clear indication that our Nature Reserves may still hold many
species that are either not recorded for Singapore or are thought to be extinct. The Nature
Reserves are probably the last refuge for 74 forest-dependent species and 80 species whose
populations are of such low numbers that they are threatened with extirpation. Bukit
Timah, Nee Soon and MacRitchie are the richest in biodiversity and, hence, are key areas
for conservation. They should be set aside as core zones with the incorporation of Mandai
and Lower Peirce.
Introduction
At the inception of the Nature Reserves survey, the Vertebrate Study
Group of the Nature Society (Singapore) was requested to survey the
mammals, reptiles and amphibians, the scope of which included:
1. an inventory of species,
2. information on the abundance of species,
3. a study of the distribution patterns of species in relation to vegetation
type, geophysical, historical and human factors, and
4. information on the conservation status of endangered and rare species.
Methodology
The Nature Reserves were divided into six zones, namely Bukit Timah,
MacRitchie, Upper Seletar, Lower Peirce, Nee Soon and Mandai. These
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
zones were further divided into 23 sectors. The number of sectors per zone
was determined by taking into account the size, geography and accessibility
of the zone (Figure 1).
ae Bukit Timah Zone | MacRitchie Zone
A - Taban & Lasia Valleys A - Sime Forest
B - Tiup Tiup B - Rifle Range Forest
C - Jungle Fall & Seraya Valleys C - MacRitchie North Forest
D - Fern Valley D - Lornie Forest
E - Main Road E - Thomson Ridge Forest
ey Lower Peirce Zone ES Nee Soon Zone
A - Lower Peirce East A - Nee Soon Range
B - Lower Peirce West B - Nee Soon East
C - Three-stone Hill
D - Nee Soon South
[| Mandai Zone P| Upper Seletar Zone
A - Upper Peirce West A - Upper Seletar West
B - Chestnut Track Forest B - Ulu Sembawang Forest
C - Gangsa Forest C - Upper Seletar North
D - Range Forest
Figure 1. The zones and sectors surveyed in the Nature Reserves.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 355
Field surveys were conducted for about four years. Each sector
received detailed nocturnal coverage over two separate weekends, a few
months apart. Additional data collected on personal trips into the Nature
Reserves by various individuals were also incorporated. The data were
divided into two categories - records within the pre-survey period from
1987 to May 1993 and records within the survey period of June 1993 to
July 1997. The combined data provided a better picture of the diversity
and distribution of the mammals, reptiles and amphibians.
Nocturnal Surveys
As most of the mammalian, reptilian and amphibian species are active at
night, nocturnal surveys were an important component of the survey. The
basic nocturnal survey stretched from 1700 hours to 0900 hours the next
day. Each sector received nocturnal coverage over one weekend per month
(usually Friday evening to Saturday morning, Saturday evening to Sunday
morning). After every sector of a particular zone had been covered, field
survey moved to another zone before returning for a second round of
coverage in the same zone. Hence each sector within a zone was covered
over two weekends or four nights. During the first year, a half-night session
was also conducted as a reconnaissance before the weekend survey.
Various methods were deployed during each night survey. These
included mist-netting, trapping, transect surveys and bat-detecting. A
minimum of six participants, including four experienced surveyors, were
required at any given time for these methods to be used simultaneously. In
practice, however, a team of eight to ten was optimal, especially on good
capture nights, when more experienced hands were needed to extract and
process the numerous animals caught.
Bat- Detecting
Important information on bats was gathered through the use of a bat-
detector, which picks up the ultrasonic echo-locating calls of insectivorous
bats. Shirley Pottie was the only researcher who could confidently handle
the bat-detector, which was normally utilised during transect surveys. As
she left Singapore before the completion of the survey, data on bats were
highly biased towards zones that had been covered before her departure,
namely MacRitchie and Upper Seletar. In addition, the bat-detector was
damaged during the survey, and a less sophisticated alternative was later
utilised. Unlike the first, this instrument was not able to record the echo-
locating calls for further analysis.
356 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Mist-netting
Mist-nets were deployed to capture bats as their very fine mesh was not
easily detected by them, and was gentle on captured animals. About five
to nine nets, including at least two high nets, were erected at two pre-
selected spots by dusk. The nets were about 2.5 metres high, with lengths
of 18, 30 or 42 feet, and denier of 30 or 50. High nets were set up by taping
two bamboo poles together to raise the nets to a height of about 6 metres.
Pulleys were attached to the top of the poles so that the nets could be
raised and lowered like a flag. The remaining nets were set at a low level,
from the forest floor to a height of over 2.5 metres. On exceptional
occasions, “triple-storey” nets were tried, where three poles were taped
together to allow the nets to reach a height of about 8 metres. The nets
were left open from about 1830 hours to 0730 hours the next day. They
were checked regularly, especially during peak activity periods.
A harp trap for bats was also used a few times but failed to capture
anything. This type of trap has been used successfully to capture
insectivorous bats worldwide. The lack of success could be due to
insufficient traps.
Trapping
Small spring-door traps were utilised for small mammals like treeshrews,
rats and squirrels. Apart from these target species, several terrapins, three
palm civets and a monkey were also caught. About 50 traps were placed
by NParks’ staff along a pre-selected transect, at 20-metre intervals, a few
days prior to each weekend survey. These were left open to allow animals
to accept them as part of their habitat.
Banana and papaya were the main baits used, although jackfruit,
pineapple, apple, grape, durian seed, sweet potato, bread, dried cuttlefish,
salted fish and soap were also tried. Banana proved to be the most effective
bait, but jackfruit and bread provided good results as well. During the
weekend surveys, traps were baited on Friday evenings, and were checked
and re-baited on Saturday mornings. A second team would then check and
re-bait the traps on Saturday evenings, and a final check was made on
Sunday mornings. Captured animals were carefully processed before
release.
Larger traps for animals like palm civets, leopard cats and mousedeer
were also utilised a couple of times but were generally non-productive.
Pitfall traps for smaller species were used in association with drift fences.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 357
Transect Surveys and Casual Sightings
Many species could not be captured by the above-mentioned methods. For
these, transect surveys were deployed. At each sector, two transects, of 1
to 3 kilometres each, were covered on foot by one to four surveyors. A
transect was usually covered after dusk and at around midnight. Rocks,
buttresses and streams were thoroughly scanned with powerful spotlights
for animals. Casual sightings by surveyors around the Base Camp also
provided valuable data. Attention was given especially to streams and
other water-bodies in the area.
Road-kill surveys
Motorable roads bordering or running through the Nature Reserves lend
themselves well to road-kill surveys. Much information on reptiles, especially
snakes, was gathered through this method. The roads were surveyed either
on foot or bicycle. Road-kill surveys were carried out for the service roads
to Bukit Kalang Service Reservoir, Upper Peirce Reservoir Park and Upper
Seletar Reservoir Park, end of Sime Road, Rifle Range Road, Old Upper
Thomson Road, Mandai Lake Road, Mandai Track 15, Old Mandai Road
and Jalan Ulu Sembawang. It should be noted that data on snakes were
biased towards sectors with heavily used roads like Old Upper Thomson
Road. Obviously, sectors without any roads would have no data from
road-kill surveys.
Identification
The main references used for identification of species were:
Mammals - Medway (1983), Payne et al. (1985), Corbet & Hill (1992) and
Lekagul & McNeely (1988).
Reptiles - Tweedie (1983), Lim & Lee (1989), Lim & Lim (1992), Inger &
Tan (1996), and Manthey & Grossman (1997).
Amphibians - Berry (1975), Lim & Lim (1992), Inger & Stuebing (1989)
and Manthey & Grossman (1997).
To aid identification and for record purposes, photographs of rarer
species were taken, usually with slide film. Where necessary, descriptions
and measurements were also recorded.
358 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Results
For the pre-survey period, 94 indigenous species were recorded - 17
mammals, 57 reptiles and 20 amphibians. The survey period yielded a total
of 131 indigenous species - 42 mammals, 66 reptiles and 23 amphibians.
Combining both periods, 1.e., between 1987 and July 1997, gave a total of
141 indigenous species (44 mammals, 72 reptiles and 25 amphibians).
A total of ten indigenous species from the pre-survey period were
not recorded in the survey period - two mammals, six reptiles and two
amphibians. In contrast, 54 species from the survey period were not recorded
in the pre-survey period - 27 mammals, 21 reptiles, and six amphibians.
This indicates the effectiveness of a deliberate survey in establishing an
inventory of species over casual observations in the pre-survey period.
Bukit Timah, Nee Soon and MacRitchie scored well in terms of
overall diversity of indigenous species (Figure 2). Bukit Timah, especially,
stood out from the other zones with 98 species compared to a mean of 80
and mammal diversity was highest, 28 species compared to a mean of 23.
Lower Peirce had only 18 species while the other zones ranged from 22 to
24 species. The mean reptile diversity was 41 species. The most diverse
zones for reptiles were Bukit Timah (51 species) and MacRitchie (50
species), but Nee Soon and Lower Peirce were not far behind, with 46
species each. Reptile diversity was markedly lower at Mandai (14 species).
Amphibian diversity was highest at Nee Soon (21 species) and Bukit Timah
(19 species) - the mean diversity was 16 species. |
No. of species
N
Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie
_S&Mammals (0 Reptiles Amphibians ©
Figure 2. Species diversity according to zones in the Nature Reserves.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 359
A total of 80 species have populations that are threatened (50
endangered, 11 rare, 17 uncommon and two indeterminate). From Figure
3, it is obvious that the key refuges for threatened species are Bukit Timah
(50 species), Nee Soon (46 species) and MacRitchie (40 species).
60
No. of species
Yj
Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie
SEndangered M/Rare @Uncommon MIndeterminate
Figure 3. Number of threatened species according to zones in the Nature Reserves.
The following terminology is used in this paper:
e Endemic subspecies : Subspecies confined to Singapore, 1.e., found
nowhere else in the world
e Localized species _: Species that are presently found in a particular
zone and nowhere else in Singapore
e Discovery : Species recorded for the first time in Singapore
within the survey period
e Rediscovery : Species recorded within the survey period
previously not seen in the past 30 years
e Recent Discovery : Species recorded for the first time in Singapore
within the pre-survey period or a species recorded
for the first time in Singapore during the survey
period but from outside the Nature Reserves
e Recent Rediscovery : Species recorded within the pre-survey period
that has not been seen in the past 30 years, or a
species recorded in the survey period but from
outside the Nature Reserves, which has not been
seen in the past 30 years.
360 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Between 1987 and 1997, there were 10 discoveries (four mammals,
three reptiles and three amphibians), four recent discoveries (two reptiles
and two amphibians), 13 rediscoveries (nine mammals, three reptiles and
one amphibian) and 10 recent rediscoveries (four mammals, five reptiles
and one amphibian).
The following section deals with every indigenous mammal, reptile
and amphibian species recorded from 1987 to 1998. A few exotic feral
species (marked ) are also mentioned as they have significant established
populations within the Nature Reserves.
Mammals
Nomenclature for mammals follows Corbet & Hill (1992). For most species,
the following conventions and criteria are adopted in describing the
abundance of mammals (numbers indicate known population size in
Singapore):
e Endangered : Occurring in very low numbers (< 30)
e Rare : Occurring in low numbers (30-59)
e Uncommon : Occurring in moderate numbers (60-99)
e Fairly Common : Occurring in high numbers (100-199)
e Common : Occurring in very high numbers (> 199)
Only 17 indigenous mammals were recorded in the pre-survey period,
while 42 were recorded in the survey period making a total of 44 indigenous
species recorded from 1987 to 1997, of which 21 species are forest dwellers
(48%) and 23 are not dependent on the forest. Twenty-one species (48% )
are restricted to the Nature Reserves.
Bukit Timah, Mandai, MacRitchie and Nee Soon are key sanctuaries
for threatened mammal species (Figure 4). Twenty-six species (59%) are
threatened with extinction - 19 endangered, five uncommon and two
indeterminate. These include three endemic subspecies - Tragulus javanicus
fulviventer, Ratufa affinis affinis and Rhinosciurus laticaudatus leo. The
last species is in fact found only in Bukit Timah. In addition, seven other
localized species also have threatened populations - Penthetor lucasi,
Emballonura monticola, Nycteris tragata, Tylonycteris pachypus,
Cheiromeles torquatus, lomys horsfieldii and Hylopetes spadiceus. Each of
these highly endangered species was recorded from only one zone. The
distribution of endangered and rare mammals is mapped out in Figure 5.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 361
Lower Peirce
Endangered Uncommon @ Indeterminate
Figure 4. Number of threatened mammal species in the Nature Reserves.
ORDER PHOLIDOTA
Family Manidae
1. Manis javanica Desmarest, 1835
Sunda Pangolin, Malayan Pangolin, Scaly Anteater
There were 16 records of M. javanica - five from the pre-survey period and
11 from the survey period. It is fairly well distributed but MacRitchie is the
most important area (8 records). This species has often been poached for
its meat, and in recent years, its population outside the Nature Reserves
has declined drastically. The future of M. javanica may depend on the
survival of the population existing within the Nature Reserves. We are
listing it as endangered.
ORDER INSECTIVORA
Family Soricidae
2. Suncus murinus murinus (Linnaeus, 1766)
House Shrew
There were only three records of this shrew, all from Upper Seletar. This
362
~ Crocidura cf. fuliginosa
Oo Rhinolophus trifoliatus
+ Rhinolophus luctus
Oo Cheiromeles torquatus
Oo Nycteris tragata
x Presbytis femoralis
Oo Manis javanica
es a
Y,
Ratufa affinis
lomys horsfieldii
Maxomys rajah
Paguma larvata
Tragulus javanicus
Nycticebus coucang
Penthetor lucasi
x
Vv
Vv
Figure 5. Distribution of endangered and rare mammals.
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Tylonycteris pachypus
Hylopetes spadiceus
Rhinosciurus laticaudatus
Emballonura monticola
Arctogalidia trivirgata
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 363
is not surprising as it is more commonly found in urban and suburban
areas.
3. Crocidura cf. fuliginosa malayana Robinson & Kloss, 1911
South-east Asian White-toothed Shrew, Common White-toothed Shrew
Murphy (1973) first recorded C. fuliginosa at Bukit Timah - specimens
were found in pitfall traps laid out for insects - but there had been no
further records until the survey. Pitfall traps laid out by NParks resulted
in 21 widely distributed records at Bukit Timah, and five each at Nee Soon
and Mandai (at a proposed “faunal link”, just on the outskirts of CCNR).
Medway (1983) stated that C. fuliginosa occurs “in all habitats from montane
to lowland forest, scrub, grass and cultivated land, and including caves.” It
is postulated that the species will be found to be more widespread in
Singapore, if pitfall trapping is carried out in areas away from the Nature
Reserves. At present however, this species has to be treated as endangered
and confined to the Nature Reserves and its vicinity.
ORDER SCANDENTIA
Family Tupaiidae
4. Tupaia glis ferruginea Raffles, 1821
Common Treeshrew
This is the dominant diurnal mammal of the forest floor. The 702 records
from the survey period alone indicate it is probably overly abundant within
the Nature Reserves. Bukit Timah is definitely over-populated with T. glis,
where it accounted for 70% (323 records) of all trappings. This species is
also common in wooded areas outside the Nature Reserves.
ORDER DERMOPTERA
Family Cynocephalidae
5. Cynocephalus variegatus peninsulae (Thomas, 1908)
Malayan Colugo, Malayan Flying Lemur
Harrison (1966) and Medway (1983) reported that C. variegatus was
common in Singapore, but Yang ef al. (1990) listed it as uncommon, and
Wee (1992) even considered it to be rare. Based on the current data, the
authors consider this species as fairly common. There were 22 records
from the pre-survey period and 95 records from the survey period. Although
364 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
widespread in distribution, the largest populations are apparently in Bukit
Timah (where it is quite easily spotted) and MacRitchie.
ORDER CHIROPTERA
Family Pteropodidae
6. Pteropus vampyrus malaccensis Andersen, 1908
Large Flying Fox, Malayan Flying Fox
This species is believed to be no longer resident in Singapore, as no
permanent roosts are currently known to exist. Furthermore, numbers
fluctuate through the year and at times, the species is absent. All recent
records were probably of visitors from Malaysia. There were 159 records
from the pre-survey period, and only 24 from the survey period. The largest
bat in the world, P. vampyrus, has a wingspan of up to 1.5 metres (Medway,
1983). It is threatened by habitat loss and poaching (especially during the
durian flowering season).
7. Cynopterus brachyotis brachyotis (Miiller, 1838)
Lesser Dog-faced Fruit Bat, Common Fruit Bat, Malaysian Fruit Bat
This is the dominant fruit bat in the Nature Reserves (670 records from
the survey period). It is also the most common and widespread fruit bat in
Singapore.
8. Penthetor lucasi (Dobson, 1800)
Dusky Fruit Bat
Plate la
The last record of Singapore’s only true forest fruit bat was in 1925, until
its rediscovery in 1995 in Bukit Timah where a colony of over 80 individuals
was found roosting in a man-made tunnel complex along Cave Path, while
a possibly separate population of at least 13 was located at the bottom of
Fern Valley. There was a total of 123 records, including females with
young.
9. Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson, 1871)
Cave Nectar Bat, Cave Fruit Bat, Dawn Bat
Eonycteris spelaea was last recorded from Singapore in 1924, and Yang et
al. (1990) listed it as ‘indeterminate’. The species was recently rediscovered
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 365
in 1990 at Sungei Buloh Nature Park, where three were mist-netted.
Throughout the survey, a total of seven bats were mist-netted for the first
time in CCNR (MacRitchie, Lower Peirce and Mandai). Outside the Nature
Reserves, a roost of over 50 was located at Pandan in 1997 while another
of about 370 was found in the Bukit Timah area. Both roosting sites were
under expressway flyovers and were quite well lit. Considering the
abundance of flowering plants and the great number of flyovers in
Singapore, this nectarivorous bat is probably surviving well.
Family Emballonuridae
10. Emballonura monticola monticola Temminck, 1838
Lesser Sheath-tailed Bat
Pottie (1996) recorded the rediscovery of FE. monticola in Bukit Timah,
where she recorded a maximum of six individuals. Emballonura monticola
roosts are often rather exposed e.g. hollow logs and rock overhangs. There
is no lack of such habitats, especially in Bukit Timah, and it is hoped that
future surveys will produce more records of this highly endangered species.
11. Taphozous saccolaimus crassus (Blyth, 1844)
Pouched Tomb Bat, Pouch-bearing Bat
Listed as indeterminate by Yang et al. (1990), this bat was recently
rediscovered at Pulau Ubin in 1993. It is common and found throughout
Singapore - 238 records were obtained during the survey period, including
the first confirmed record of the species from the Nature Reserves.
Family Nycteridae
12. Nycteris tragata (Andersen, 1912)
Hollow-faced Bat
Plate 1b
The first and only record of this species was made in 1993, when a pair was
found roosting in a culvert at Rifle Range Forest (MacRitchie). They were
caught and taken to the National University of Singapore for processing.
Unfortunately, the female died and was deposited as a voucher specimen
at the Zoological Reference Collection. The male was released at the point
of capture but has not been recorded again.
366 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Family Rhinolophidae
13. Rhinolophus trifoliatus trifoliatus Temminck, 1834
Trefoil Horseshoe Bat
Plate lc
Last recorded from Singapore in the 1930s, and classified as indeterminate
in status by Yang et al. (1990), R. trifoliatus was rediscovered in 1994 at
MacRitchie, where four were recorded. A larger population of 14 was
later located at Nee Soon and Mandai.
14. Rhinolophus luctus morio Gray, 1842
Great Woolly Horseshoe Bat, Great Eastern Horseshoe Bat
Plate 1d
An identified rhinolophid bat was detected through its call at MacRitchie
(three records) and Mandai (one record) during the survey period. These
were probably the same records that Pottie (1996) attributed to R. luctus.
Although a true forest bat, it was also recorded at Fairy Point Hill, Changi,
a suburban area (Pottie, 1996).
15. Rhinolophus lepidus Blyth, 1844
Blyth’s Horseshoe Bat
In Peninsular Malaysia, this species was formerly known as R. refulgens,
the Glossy Horseshoe Bat, a name which is now considered a synonym of
R. lepidus. This species is a discovery for Singapore, the first official record
being in 1994 at Upper Peirce West (Mandai). Pottie (1996) had, however,
recorded it earlier at Bukit Timah in 1993 or 1994 (S.A. Pottie, pers. comm..).
But since no details of the record were published, it was not officially
accepted as the first record. Rhinolophus lepidus is widespread in the Nature
Reserves, with a big population of at least 350 at Bukit Timah. Though
new to Singapore, we consider the species to be fairly common, as there
were a minimum of 555 records.
Family Vespertilionidae
16. Myotis muricola muricola (Gray, 1846)
Whiskered Myotis, Whiskered Bat
This bat is the most common species along roads and tracks within the
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 367
forest. It is widespread and Pottie (1996) recorded it in all habitats except
the city.
17. Myotis adversus (Horsfield, 1824)
Grey Large-footed Myotis
Harrison (1966) implied that M. adversus was rare in Singapore (based
only on an old record), and Medway (1983) regarded the species as rare in
Peninsular Malaysia. This is amazing, as Pottie (1996) found it to be common
in Singapore, being recorded island-wide over many fresh and brackish
water-bodies. During the survey, the species was mostly found over
reservoirs and adjacent channels (156 records).
18. Scotophilus kuhlii castaneus Gray, 1838
Lesser Asiatic Yellow House Bat
This is the commonest insectivorous bat over the forest canopy. Pottie
(1996) found many roosts on the rooftops of houses and Housing
Development Board (HDB) apartment blocks all over Singapore, and
reported it as the commonest microchiropteran in Singapore.
19. Tylonycteris pachypus pachypus (Temminck, 1840)
Lesser Bamboo Bat
Pottie (1996) listed T. pachypus as extinct but a single bat was mist-netted
in 1997, just below the Summit at Bukit Timah. This is the only record
since Chasen (1925) and constituted the rediscovery of the species.
20. Tylonycteris robustula robustula Thomas, 1915
Greater Bamboo Bat, Greater Flat-headed Bat
There were only 34 records of this species during the survey but it is fairly
common and widespread in Singapore. At dusk, it is easily observed
hawking for insects with Scotophilus kuhlii. Like T. pachypus, this species
roosts in the internodes of bamboo.
21. ?Pipistrellus sp.
Pipistrelle A
An unidentified bat was observed foraging high over open areas (Bukit
Timah, Mandai, Upper Seletar and MacRitchie). Pottie (1996) suggested it
to be a vespertilionid, and possibly P. javanicus, the Javan Pipistrelle - all
368 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
other vespertilionids known to have occurred in Singapore were ruled out.
This species is tentatively designated as Pipistrelle A, but it is possible that
it is a previously unrecorded species for Singapore. This is an uncommon
but widespread species.
Family Molossidae
22. Cheiromeles torquatus torquatus Horsfield, 1824
Naked Bat, Hairless Bat
Cheiromeles torquatus was last recorded in 1979 in a derelict house near
Braddell Road (Anon, 1979). The only record since then was of a flock of
five over Chestnut Track Forest (Mandai) in 1995. Although found foraging
over the forest, this flock could have been roosting outside the Nature
Reserves. At present, however, we consider the species as being confined
to Mandai, and endangered in status.
ORDER PRIMATES
Family Loridae
23. Nycticebus coucang coucang (Boddaert, 1785)
Slow Loris
Although recorded from Bukit Timah and MacRitchie during the pre-
survey period, both records of N. coucang were possibly of escapees. The
species has also been recorded in 1993 and 1995 at Pulau Tekong (Senin,
pers. comm.) and is therefore considered extant in Singapore, though highly
endangered. There has also been an unconfirmed record from Nee Soon in
1997 (S. Chan, pers. comm.).
Family Cercopithecidae
24. Macaca fascicularis fascicularis (Raffles, 1821)
Long-tailed Macaque, Crab-eating Macaque
Perhaps the most well-known mammal of the Nature Reserves, it is
abundant - 1,415 records in the survey period alone - but the records
probably involved about 850 individuals, based on maximum counts of
troops. It is estimated that about 34 separate troops were encountered
during the survey.
ee
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 369
25. Presbytis femoralis femoralis (Martin, 1838)
Banded Leaf Monkey, Banded Langur
This subspecies is highly endangered, as it is found only in Singapore and
South Johor. Locally, with its recent extirpation in Bukit Timah in 1987
(Yang & Lua, 1988), P. f. femoralis is now confined to Nee Soon and
Lower Peirce. There were a total of 257 records from 1987 to June 1997,
but these involved a high degree of duplication. It is suspected that there
are only two or three troops, with a total of 18 to 23 individuals. The
largest troop, of at least 10 individuals, inhabits the main swamp forest at
Nee Soon Range Forest. A second troop moves between Nee Soon East
and Lower Peirce West, comprising at least seven individuals. A troop of
at least five individuals was reported by NParks staff at Lower Peirce East
- this might be a previously unknown troop as it was quite a distance from
the other troops. A lone individual was also seen at Three-Stone Hill.
ORDER CARNIVORA
Family Canidae
26. Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758
Domestic Dog
Feral dogs were probably more common in the past when villages abounded
at the edge of the Nature Reserves. There were only six records during the
survey but many other records were probably not reported. Although the
population within the Nature Reserves is not substantial, the presence of
even a few C. familiaris poses a threat to endangered species like Tragulus
Javanicus and Paguma larvata. All known populations of this unwelcome
species should be removed from the Nature Reserves.
Family Viverridae
27. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus musanga (Raffles, 1821)
Common Palm Civet, Toddy Cat
There were five records from the survey period - all from the fringes of
CCNR (Mandai, Upper Seletar and Lower Peirce), in the vicinity of
remnant agricultural habitat. Yang er al. (1990) listed this species as
common, but the authors are of the opinion that it is now uncommon in
Singapore.
370 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
28. Paguma larvata jourdainii (Gray, 1837)
Masked Palm Civet
Chasen (1924) doubted the record of Singapore specimens of P. larvata by
Flower (1900). However, based on a record in 1993, at MacRitchie, and
_ another in 1990, at Pulau Tekong (Vasantha, pers. comm.), we are listing
this species as a possible resident, and the record at MacRitchie, a
rediscovery.
29. Arctogalidia trivirgata sumatrana Lyon, 1908
Small-toothed Palm Civet, Three-striped Palm Civet
Yang et al. (1990) listed this species as indeterminate as there were no
recent records since Chasen (1924). Two examples were confirmed from
Nee Soon in 1997, after the survey period (S.H. Yeo, pers. comm.). During
the survey period, there were also two records of an arboreal civet, probably
involving the same individual, during night surveys at Bukit Timah. This
was believed to be A. trivirgata. It was also heard calling incessantly,
sounding like Sundasciurus tenuis, but much louder and exaggerated.
30. Viverra tangalunga tangalunga Gray 1832
Malay Civet
There was an unconfirmed record of this large civet in the early 1990s, at
Upper Seletar (Vasantha, pers. comm.). If this species still exists, Mandai
and Upper Seletar are the most likely zones for future records. Viverra
tangalunga, has also been reported at Pulau Tekong (Lim, 1991a; Sivasothi,
1994), but the authors believe that might have been a misidentified V.
zibetha.
ORDER ARTIODACTYLA
Family Tragulidae
31. Tragulus javanicus fulviventer Gray, 1836
Lesser Mousedeer
This subspecies is endemic to Singapore, and internationally endangered.
There were five records from the pre-survey period - one from Bukit
Timah and two each from Nee Soon and MacRitchie. During the survey
period, five records were noted in Nee Soon, while only one each was
obtained at Bukit Timah and MacRitchie.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians epi
Family Cervidae
32. Cervus unicolor equinus Cuvier, 1823
Sambar, Sambhur
Natural populations of C. unicolor apparently died out decades ago, but a
few have been reported from Upper Seletar since the 1970s, including
three records from the survey period. These are believed to have been
escapees from the nearby Singapore Zoological Gardens or Night Safari.
A small feral herd of perhaps about 10 to 15 animals exists at Upper
Seletar (Vasantha & T.M. Leong, pers. comm.)
33. Muntiacus muntjak peninsulae Lydekker, 1915
Common Barking Deer
A single record of M. muntjak was obtained from Chestnut Track Forest
(Mandai). This might have been one of two reported escapees from the
Night Safari (Vasantha, pers. comm.), as the species is believed to be
extinct (Yang et al., 1990). However, the possible existence of a small
remnant population at Mandai should not be ruled out.
ORDER RODENTIA
Family Sciuridae
34. Ratufa affinis affinis (Raffles, 1821)
Cream-coloured Giant Squirrel, Common Giant Squirrel, Pale Giant
Squirrel
Another endemic subspecies, R. a. affinis is highly endangered and
threatened with extinction. Except for a single record from Bukit Timah in
1990, it is confined to Nee Soon, where only four examples (one pair and
two individuals) were confirmed in the survey period (all 22 CCNR records
from 1987 to June 1997 are believed to involve the same animals).
35. Callosciurus notatus singapurensis Robinson, 1916
Plantain Squirrel, Common Red-bellied Squirrel
Although common everywhere, C. n. singapurensis is actually endemic to
Singapore. It is our only endemic subspecies that is currently not threatened.
It is found in forested areas as well as suburban gardens, parks and even
on wayside trees. A total of 425 individuals were recorded during the
survey period.
372 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
36. Sundasciurus tenuis tenuis (Horsfield, 1823)
Slender Squirrel
This is the most abundant rodent in the Nature Reserves - 763 were
recorded in the survey period alone. The only known sustainable population
outside the Nature Reserves is centred at the Botanic Gardens’ Rain Forest
and Tyersall Woods.
37. Rhinosciurus laticaudatus leo Thomas & Wroughton, 1909
Shrew-faced Ground Squirrel
Confined to Bukit Timah, this endemic subspecies is threatened with
extinction. The only recent record was in 1989 and none were confirmed
during the survey period. This species could be a victim of competition
from the abundant Tupaia glis.
Family Pteromyidae
38. lomys horsfieldii davisoni (Thomas, 1886)
Horsfield’s Flying Squirrel,
Chasen (1925) recorded J. horsfieldii from Kranji and Bukit Timah.
However, the two specimens from Kranji, deposited at the Zoological
Reference Collection, are misidentified. This leaves the single specimen
from Bukit Timah as the only previous record of the species. Jomys
horsfieldii was, however, rediscovered in 1995, when a pair was observed
at Nee Soon East. This was the first record of the species from CCNR.
39. Hylopetes spadiceus (Blyth, 1847)
Red-cheeked Flying Squirrel
Plate 2
This species was only discovered in 1996 in Bukit Timah. The existence of
H. spadiceus has perhaps been overlooked, due to its small size and a lack
of nocturnal surveys in Singapore over the past few decades. Twenty-four
records were obtained during the survey period and a small but apparently
viable population exists within Bukit Timah. There was also a report in
1990 of a small flying squirrel at Taban Valley, Bukit Timah (M.N. Jumaat,
pers. comm.), which is now believed to have been H. spadiceus. During the
survey period, a pair was clearly observed at its nest hole about 2 m above
the ground. The local animals have white stockings, a characteristic not
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 373
found in any Malaysian flying squirrel. This indicates a possible undescribed
subspecies endemic to Singapore. This flying squirrel gives a short, high-
pitched shriek as it moves around the forest.
Family Muridae
40. Rattus rattus diardii (Jentinck, 1880)
House Rat, Roof Rat ©
There were four records of this familiar rat - one from the Summit of
Bukit Timah, and two in scrubland at Upper Seletar. Rattus rattus is more
commonly found in urban and suburban areas, and the Bukit Timah
example probably reached the Summit by way of the access road. A possible
example was, however, trapped at Seraya Valley under primary forest, but
it escaped during processing, and its identity could not be positively
established.
41. Rattus tiomanicus jalorensis (Bonhote, 1903)
Malaysian Wood Rat, Malaysian Field Rat
Only 19 examples were recorded (three in the pre-survey period and 16 in
the survey period), but this species is believed to be more prevalent outside
rain forest. Future surveys, especially in forest fringe, scrub and back
mangrove, should produce more records for Singapore. At Bukit Timah,
an example was known to have gnawed through a Chengal-timber door.
42. Rattus exulans concolor (Blyth, 1859)
Polynesian Rat
Commonly found in urban and suburban areas, R. exulans was recorded
only once from Upper Seletar in scrubland.
43. Rattus annandalei bullatus (Lyon, 1908)
Annandale’s Rat, Singapore Rat
Rattus annandalei is the most common nocturnal mammal of the forest
floor (310 records in the survey period). Considering that Harrison (1966)
and Medway (1983) were of the opinion that its natural habitat is secondary
forest and scrub, the abundance of R. annandalei (even in primary
vegetation) is cause for concern. The population at Bukit Timah (107
records) is especially worrying with respect to competition with spiny rats.
374 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
44. Maxomys rajah pellax (Miller, 1900)
Brown Spiny Rat, Rajah Rat
New to Singapore, M. rajah was first recorded in 1995 at Three-Stone Hill
(Nee Soon), where two were trapped. Subsequently, a total of 19 were
trapped from all sectors in Nee Soon, but mainly from Three-Stone Hill.
There is probably a viable but nonetheless endangered population. This
murid has not been confirmed outside Nee Soon though juveniles of a
spiny rat were caught both at Lower Peirce and Mandai but these could
not be identified to species, as juveniles of M. rajah and M. surifer look
alike. The two records outside Nee Soon are tentatively placed under M.
rajah, the only spiny rat confirmed for CCNR thus far.
45. Maxomys surifer leonis (Robinson & Kloss, 1911)
Red Spiny Rat
The last records of this endemic subspecies were in 1968 from Bukit Timah
(Murphy, 1973) but no specimens were kept and the identification is
doubtful. A spiny rat was observed once in the field at Bukit Timah during
the survey period, but could not be identified to species. With the discovery
of M. rajah at Nee Soon, this spiny rat could, however, not be assumed to
be M. surifer.
Reptiles
Nomenclature for reptiles generally follows Lim & Lim (1992) and Denzer
& Manthey (1991). For most species, the following convention and criteria
are used to describe the abundance of reptiles (numbers indicate known
population size in Singapore):
e Endangered : Occurring in very low numbers (< 10)
e Rare : Occurring in low numbers (10-19)
e Uncommon : Occurring in moderate numbers (20-29)
¢ Fairly Common : Occurring in high numbers (30-39)
¢ Common : Occurring in very high numbers (> 39)
As most reptiles are not easily detectable, it is difficult to designate a
reptile as extinct, even if there have been no records for a long period of
time. For this reason, not much data on extinct reptiles is available. From
Lim & Lim (1992), it is, however, assumed that there are no recent records
(at that time) for 33 terrestrial species (32%) not covered in its main text.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians BYD
During the pre-survey period, 57 indigenous species were recorded,
while the survey period produced 65 species making a total of 72 for the
period 1987 to July 1997, of which 35 are forest species (49%) and 37 are
not true forest dwellers. Twenty-eight species (39%) are confined to the
Nature Reserves.
Bukit Timah, Nee Soon, MacRitchie and Lower Peirce are the four
most important zones for threatened reptile species (Figure 6). Forty species
(56%) are considered to be threatened, 24 endangered, seven rare and
nine uncommon. These include nine localized species - Ahaetulla fasciolata,
Ophites subcinctus, Psammodynastes pictus, Rhadophis subminiatus,
Xenochrophis piscator, Xenochrophis trianguligerus, Zaocys fuscus,
Lygosoma sp. and Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus. The distribution of
endangered and rare reptiles is mapped in Figures 7 and 8.
No. of species
Ate Sa Y,
ea? = AEE a Wy :
Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie |
|
a
SS eee
———
SEndangered MRare WUncommon wMlindeterminate
Figure 6. Number of threatened reptile species in the Nature Reserves.
ORDER SQUAMATA
Family Boidae
1. Python reticulatus (Schneider, 1801)
Reticulated Python
The world’s longest snake (up to 10 m) is both common and widespread in
376 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
UPPER
SELETAR
RESERVOIR
+ Mabuya rugifera O Dogania subplana
+ Aphaniotis fusca a Dasia olivacea
Oo Cosymbotes craspedotus ala Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus
a) Hemiphyllodactylus typus A Lipinia cf. vittigera
Oo Notochelys platynota A Dasia cf. grisea
O Amyda cartilaginea
Figure 7. Distribution of endangered and rare reptiles (excluding snakes).
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians
Oy
SELETAR
RESERVOIR
= Calamaria lumbricoidea A Gonyosoma oxycephala
* Liopeltis baliodeirus A Oligodon signatus
a Chrysopelea pelias a Boiga cynodon
oO Dryophiops rubescens & Ophiophagus hannah
* Boiga dendrophila D4 Tropidolaemus wagleri
| Xenochrophis trianguligerus O Dryocalamus subannulatus
A Xenochrophis maculatus @) Rhadophis subminiatus
Psammodynastes pictus
Zaocys fuscus
Ophites subcinctus
Boiga jaspidea
Ahaetulla fasciolata
Figure 8. Distribution of endangered and rare snakes.
378 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Singapore. It was recorded from all zones in the Nature Reserves. This
species has learnt to use our drainage and sewerage systems to its advantage.
It is actually useful in helping to keep the rodent pest population in check.
Family Xenopeltidae
2. Xenopeltis unicolor Reinwardt, 1827
Sunbeam Snake, Iridescent Earth Snake
A medium-sized snake, X. unicolor is actually quite harmless. Although
there were only nine records from the survey, it is believed to be fairly
common, as it is an obscure burrower.
Family Typhlopidae
3. Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803)
Common Blind Snake
Another burrowing species, R. braminus is commonly found in gardens
and parks and presumably in the Nature Reserves as well. Only one example
was recorded in the survey.
Family Colubridae
4. Ahaetulla fasciolata (Fischer, 1885)
Speckled-headed Whip Snake
There was only a single confirmed record of this endangered snake from
the Nature Reserves (Bukit Timah). A record of one donated to the zoo
gave no details of its origin (Lim, 1990a). Due to its arboreal habit and
brown colouration, it is easily overlooked.
5. Ahaetulla prasina (Boie, 1827)
Oriental Whip Snake
One of the commonest snakes in Singapore, A. prasina is also found in
gardens and parks. There were a total of 33 records, spread across all
zones except Mandai. It is the most frequently recorded snake at Upper
Seletar (14 records). This arboreal species is normally camouflaged and
when disturbed it moves very swiftly, appearing to flow through the foliage.
It preys on lizards and other small creatures.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 379
6. Boiga cynodon (Boie, 1827)
Dog-toothed Cat Snake
This endangered species was found on eight occasions (four within the
pre-survey period, and four during the survey). It is arboreal and grows up
to 2.5 m in length. A forest dweller, B. cynodon, was recently recorded
from Pulau Ubin. This was surprising as the forest there is very much
degraded, in comparison to the Nature Reserves.
7. Boiga dendrophila (Boie, 1827)
Yellow-ringed Cat Snake, Mangrove Snake
This is one of our most striking snakes. Though rare, B. dendrophila is not
confined to the rain forest - it has also been found in mangroves. With a
maximum length of about 2.5 m, this species should not be handled as it
readily bites when provoked. There were a total of 13 records, mostly of
live examples.
8. Boiga jaspidea (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854)
Jasper’s Cat Snake, Mottled Cat Snake
This endangered species was recorded in the pre-survey period only - once
each from Upper Seletar and Lower Peirce.
9. Calamaria lumbricoidea Boie, 1827
Variable Reed Snake
This rare species was recorded ten times in the survey. Because of its
burrowing habit, it is not often seen. Like C. schlegeli below, it is totally
harmless to humans.
10. Calamaria schlegeli schlegeli Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854
Pink-headed Reed Snake
A total of 26 records were obtained for this species, mostly from Lower
Peirce (11 records) and Bukit Timah (eight records). The first author has
also recorded it in 1989 at Holland Woods, outside the Nature Reserves.
This indicates that C. schlegeli may not be a true forest species. Further
records are needed to confirm this.
11. Chrysopelea paradisi (Boie, 1827)
Paradise Tree Snake
380 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
This beautiful species, like C. pelias below, has been observed to glide
from tree to tree. Other than the Nature Reserves, it is also commonly
found in gardens and parks. It is known to eat mice, birds and lizards (Lim
& Lee, 1989) and the first author has even recorded one with a bat
(Tylonycteris robustula) in its coils.
12. Chrysopelea pelias (Linnaeus, 1758)
Twin-barred Tree Snake
There were 12 records of this attractive, arboreal species, with eight records
coming from Lower Peirce. Sadly, except for one live example each at Nee
Soon and Bukit Timah, all records were of road-kills. This rare forest
species has surprisingly been recorded recently from Pulau Ubin.
13. Dendrelaphis caudolineatus (Gray, 1824)
Striped Bronzeback
Although growing up to 2 m, this species is rather inoffensive. Like all
bronzebacks, it is arboreal and very agile among the branches, where it
hunts for small birds, lizards and frogs (Lim & Lee, 1989). There were a
total of 15 records during the survey.
14. Dendrelaphis formosus (Boie, 1827)
Elegant Bronzeback
This is possibly the commonest arboreal snake in the Nature Reserves (34
records). and the dominant snake at Lower Peirce (18 records). It has the
ability to puff up the anterior part of its body when threatened, thus
appearing larger.
15. Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin, 1788)
Painted Bronzeback
More commonly found in open or lightly wooded areas, D. pictus was
recorded 12 times in the Nature Reserves. Its diet consists of frogs and
lizards.
16. Dryocalamus subannulatus (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854)
Saddled Tree Snake, Malayan Bridal Snake
Plate 3a
Dryocalamus subannulatus was recently rediscovered in 1990 when a dead
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 381
specimen was found on a road at Lower Peirce. Two live examples were
subsequently recorded in 1996 at Nee Soon and Bukit Timah. This slender
inoffensive snake can be easily handled.
17. Dryophiops rubescens (Gray, 1835)
Keel-bellied Whip Snake
A road-kill of this highly endangered snake was found during the survey
period at Lower Peirce. Supposedly a forest species, it has also been recently
recorded from Pulau Ubin.
18. Elaphe flavolineata (Schlegel, 1837)
Common Racer, Common Malayan Racer
There were only four records of this species, but it is more commonly
found in agricultural and other open areas. A large species reaching 2 m, it
is terrestrial and feeds on rodents and birds.
19. Gonyosoma oxycephala (Boie, 1827)
Red-tailed Racer
This species starts life with a humble olive-brown colour, but is a beautiful
green when mature. The tail is brown or red. There were a total of only
four records at MacRitchie, Nee Soon and Bukit Timah. It 1s arboreal and
not easily seen as its green coloration blends with the surrounding foliage.
20. Homalopsis buccata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Puff-faced Water Snake
With 41 records, H. buccata is technically the commonest snake in the
Nature Reserves. It is, however, restricted to aquatic habitats, with the
largest population at Nee Soon (24 records), where it is the commonest
snake. The juvenile has a reddish-orange body, handsomely marked with
broad black bands. As it matures, the coloration changes to light brown or
grey, with darker bands. Its diet consists of fish and probably frogs.
21. Liopeltis baliodeirus (Boie, 1827)
Orange-bellied Ringneck
This rare, harmless species has a light orange underside. Only 11 were
recorded, mainly from MacRitchie (five records) and Lower Peirce (four
records). It is normally found on low vegetation or on the forest floor.
382 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
22. Macropisthodon rhodomelas (Boie, 1827)
Blue-necked Keelback
There were 10 records of this frog-eating species. It is fairly common and
also occurs in open country and wooded areas.
23. Oligodon octolineatus (Schneider, 1801)
Striped Kukri Snake
An attractive and harmless species, this snake is common and widespread
in the Nature Reserves (21 records). It is also found in rural areas and
perhaps parks and gardens. Lim & Lim (1992) suspected that eggs form a
major part of its diet, and during the survey, a pair was observed in a tree
hole with large reptilian eggs.
24. Oligodon signatus (Giinther, 1864)
Barred Kukri Snake
There are only four recent records of the endangered O. signatus - two at
MacRitchie, and a single example each from Bukit Timah and Nee Soon.
Except for the Nee Soon snake, all others were road-kills.
25. Ophites aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Common Wolf Snake, House Snake
This is a common snake of suburban and cultivated areas. Its diet consists
largely of geckoes. Hence, it is often encountered in or near buildings.
26. Ophites subcinctus (Boie, 1827)
Banded Wolf Snake
A road-kill at Lower Peirce in 1988 remains the only recent record of this
attractive snake. Inger & Tan (1996) stated that this species never grows
beyond 40 cm in length, but the Singapore specimen measured over 49 cm
(Lim, 1988).
27. Psammodynastes pictus Giinther, 1858
Painted Mock Viper
Lim (1991b) noted that P. pictus feeds on fish and prawns. The only record
in the past decade came from Nee Soon in 1991.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 383
28. Pseudorhabdion longiceps (Cantor, 1847)
Dwarf Reed Snake
This tiny snake lives in the leaf litter, under logs and stones, and can even
burrow. It is not restricted to forest.
29. Ptyas carinatus (Giinther, 1858)
Keeled Rat Snake
Ptyas carinatus is almost as frequently encountered as Maticora bivirgata
at Bukit Timah (13 records). There were a total of 21 records during the
survey. A large species reaching 4 m, it feeds on frogs and terrestrial
rodents.
30. Ptyas korros (Schlegel, 1837)
Indo-Chinese Rat Snake
There were only five records of this species, but it is not confined to the
Nature Reserves. It is perhaps commoner in cultivated and rural areas.
31. Rhadophis subminiatus (Schlegel, 1837)
Red-necked Keelback
Tentatively a rediscovery, a single record of this handsome snake was
obtained in 1994, at Mandai. Lim & Lee (1989) stated that R. subminiatus
is “recorded mainly from the northern parts of Peninsular Malaysia,
Thailand and south China”. It is possible that this record was of an escapee
from the Singapore Zoological Gardens.
32. Sibynophis melanocephalus (Gray, 1834)
Black-headed Collared Snake
This terrestrial species is considered uncommon as it is not often
encountered - there were only six records from the survey, including an
example caught in a pitfall trap. It is, however, not confined to the forest.
33. Xenelaphis hexagonotus (Cantor, 1847)
Malayan Brown Snake
This is a large but inoffensive snake, more commonly found in open country
and cultivated areas, often near water. Lim & Lee (1989) reported a diet
consisting of rodents, amphibians and fish. There are only two recent records
from the Nature Reserves.
384 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
34. Xenochrophis maculatus (Edeling, 1865)
Spotted Keelback
This species was recently rediscovered in 1989 at Bukit Timah. A second
pre-survey record was obtained at MacRitchie in 1991. During the survey
period, there were 12 more records with 11 from Lower Peirce and 1 from
MacRitchie. Unfortunately, except for the latter, all other records were of
road-kills.
35. Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799)
Chequered Keelback
There were four records at Upper Seletar, but these were possibly of
escapees (Lim & Lim, 1988; Lim & Lee, 1989).
36. Xenochrophis trianguligerus (Bote, 1827)
Triangle Keelback, Red-sided Water Snake
Plate 3b
This species was rediscovered in 1995 at Lower Peirce, but only a moult
was found.
37. Zaocys fuscus (Giinther, 1858)
White-bellied Rat Snake, Brown Rat Snake
A snake, possibly of this species, was observed beside a pool in 1997 at
Nee Soon (S.H. Yeo, pers. comm.). If confirmed, the record constitutes a
rediscovery of this highly endangered snake.
Family Elapidae
38. Maticora bivirgata (Boie, 1827)
Blue Malayan Coral Snake
This highly venomous species is the commonest snake at Bukit Timah (15
records) and is also frequently encountered at MacRitchie (nine records).
In addition, it is one of the commonest terrestrial snakes in the Nature
Reserves (26 records). One of our most beautiful snakes, M. bivirgata
often lies across a track to soak in the sun. As a result, visitors to the
Nature Reserves often chance upon it. Fortunately, it is not aggressive and
makes its escape rather than standing its ground. The first author has
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 385
observed an example flattening itself against the ground and raising its
bright red tail when cornered. Though not necessarily a forest dweller, M.
bivirgata has not been recently recorded outside the Nature Reserves, and
the authors consider it an uncommon species in Singapore.
39. Maticora intestinalis (Laurenti, 1768)
Banded Malayan Coral Snake
A close cousin of the above, this species is rather widespread in the Nature
Reserves, but is commoner at MacRitchie, where 11 were recorded. Unlike
M. bivirgata, most of the records were of road-kills. The species is also
found in areas fringing the Nature Reserves.
40. Naja sumatrana Miiller, 1887
Black Spitting Cobra
This very dangerous species is more common than most people think. It
can be found in gardens, parks and scrubland, as well as the Nature Reserves
(11 records). Hiding in the day, it emerges at night to hunt for small
animals. This species has the ability to spit venom accurately at the eyes,
and should not be approached, as it is highly irritable.
41. Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836)
King Cobra, Hamadryad
The largest venomous snake in the world, O. hannah was recorded only
four times in the past decade - three at MacRitchie and one at Nee Soon.
In the mid 1980s, the first author also recorded a juvenile at Pulau Tekong.
The species can grow to about 6 m. It feeds on other snakes (ophiophagous),
particularly rat snakes (Lim & Lee, 1989).
Family Viperidae
42. Tropidolaemus wagleri (Boie, 1827)
Wagler’s Pit Viper
This beautiful snake is green when young, slowly developing black barrings
and a bright yellow venter as it matures. It is usually seen on shrubs or low
branches, and stays motionless to avoid detection. When disturbed it is
sluggish and usually unagegressive. This snake has heat-sensing organs and
presumably feeds on small mammals and birds. There were 12 records
386 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
from the survey - six at Bukit Timah, five at MacRitchie and one at Mandai.
It is also recorded from mangroves, and the first author has a record from
a rubber plantation on Pulau Tekong.
ORDER SAURIA
Family Varanidae
43. Varanus nebulosus (Gray, 1831)
Clouded Monitor
Lim & Lim (1992) listed V. nebulosus as a rare species, and prior to the
survey, there was only a single record for Singapore. There were, however,
32 records from the survey period. This species had probably been mistaken
for the more familiar V. salvator in the past. The status of the species is
now considered to be fairly common. MacRitchie is the stronghold for V.
nebulosus (23 records), where it is often seen clinging onto tree trunks.
44. Varanus salvator salvator (Laurenti, 1786)
Malayan Water Monitor, Asian Water Monitor, Common Water
Monitor
This is the monitor commonly seen in mangroves, on offshore islands and
even along canals in urban areas. Large specimens are common in and
around Sungei Buloh Nature Park. As its name suggest, V. salvator swims
readily, especially when threatened. Within the Nature Reserves, it is usually
found on the fringes of the reservoirs.
Family Scincidae
45. Dasia cf. grisea (Gray, 1845)
Brown Tree Skink
This skink is a new record for Singapore and its presence was confirmed in
1996 at Nee Soon (S.H. Yeo, pers. comm.). The second author recorded an
example in 1994 at MacRitchie. It has a brown dorsum with black transverse
barrings with white below the eye. The juvenile is yellow-brown with thicker,
more defined barrings and a series of spots on the head. The underparts
are yellowish in colour.
46. Dasia olivacea Gray, 1839
Olive Tree Skink
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 387
There were a total of nine records of this endangered species, including
four juveniles at Nee Soon. The other records came from Bukit Timah.
The adult is olive brown dorsally with indistinct black transverse barrings,
whereas the juvenile has a yellowish head and tail, and a blackish body
with thin yellowish barrings. The underparts are light green. An example
from Bukit Timah had no barring on the dorsum. There is a possibility
that the records involve more than a single species of Dasia.
47. Lipinia cf. vittigera (Boulenger, 1894)
Yellow-striped Skink
There were four records of this newly discovered species at Bukit Timah.
Another was seen after the survey period, at Upper Seletar, within the
grounds of the Night Safari (T.M. Leong, pers. comm.). This striking skink
is usually observed on tree trunks. A broad yellow band runs dorsally from
the snout to the end of the tail. A broad black band is found on each side
of the yellow band, but tapers off towards the tail.
48. Lygosoma sp.
Supple Skink A
Two specimens of a skink species were collected in 1989 and 1990 near a
stream at Nee Soon, but their identity is still not determined.
49. Mabuya multifasciata (Kuhl, 1820)
Common Sun Skink, Sun Lizard
This handsome skink is very common in any wooded area, and is often
seen sunning itself along trails and footpaths. There were 121 records from
the survey, making it the second most numerous reptile, after Cuora
amboinensis. Although highly approachable, it is extremely difficult to
catch. The coloration varies from bronze to yellow-brown, and often the
sides are a bright orange and the throat a deep yellow.
50. Mabuya rugifera (Stoliczka, 1870)
Striped Sun Skink
There were only five records of this endangered species during the survey
(Bukit Timah and Nee Soon). All were found in clearings in the forest.
The second author eventually recorded another in 1998 at Thomson Ridge,
MacRitchie.
388 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
51. Riopa bowringi (Gunther, 1864)
Garden Supple Skink
This tiny skink is more easily seen in urban areas, where it often crawls out
of grass to sun itself. It is probably found all over Singapore. Within the
Nature Reserves, only one record was obtained. However, the use of pitfall
traps (with sealed bottoms) may perhaps produce more records.
Family Agamidae
52. Aphaniotis fusca (Peters, 1864)
Earless Agamid
The only known population of A. fusca in CCNR, prior to the survey
period, was at the fringes of Upper Seletar Reservoir Park (Nee Soon),
where two individuals were recorded. Two other populations have since
been located during the survey, at MacRitchie North and Three-Stone Hill
(Nee Soon), with four records at each location. At Bukit Timah, two were
recorded during the pre-survey period and another four during the survey
period.
53. Bronchocela cristatella (Kuhl, 1820)
Green Crested Lizard
This beautiful agamid used to be very common in urban and suburban
areas. It is now more frequently encountered in parks and wooded areas.
It is suspected that its populations have dwindled due to competition from
Calotes versicolor. The species is, however, surviving well on the fringes of
the Nature Reserves. Extensive culling of C. versicolor may allow this
species to make a comeback in its lost niches.
54. Calotes versicolor (Daudin, 1802)
Changeable Lizard
A feral species, C. versicolor was supposedly introduced in the 1980s, and
has since spread to every urban, suburban and rural area. It has, however,
not penetrated the Nature Reserves, except at the fringes.
55. Draco melanopogon Boulenger, 1887
Black-bearded Flying Dragon
Due to its arboreal habits, this species has probably been overlooked by
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 389
many. Confined to the Nature Reserves, it is uncommon (36 records) but
rather widespread. Males have a red and black gular flag. To the untrained
eye, it is similar to D. volans, but its colour is greener, and it is larger and
proportionately more slender.
56. Draco volans sumatrana Schegel, 1844
Common Flying Dragon
This species can be found in any area with trees, and it may surprise many
that it can often be seen in housing estates. It is equally at home in the
Nature Reserves, where 23 were recorded. Unlike D. melanopogon, it has
a yellow gular flag, tinged with blue.
Family Gekkonidae
57. Cnemaspis kendalli (Gray, 1845)
Kendall’s Rock Gecko
Bukit Timah is the key sanctuary (50 records) for this forest species,
although Nee Soon probably has a sizeable population as well (five records).
There was one record each from MacRitchie, Mandai and Upper Seletar.
Rajathurai (1996a) reported an example found in a culvert, at Pulau Tekong
Besar, the only known record outside the Nature Reserves. This record
needs verification, however, as C. kendalli can easily be confused with
Gekko monarchus. Cnemaspis kendalli is usually seen on tree trunks and
rocks, and often raises its tail over its back when alarmed. Strangely,
regenerated tails are yellow.
58. Cosymbotes craspedotus (Mocquard, 1890)
Frilly Gecko
Plate 3¢
Lim (1991c) recorded the recent discovery of this species at Nee Soon. A
second example of this highly endangered species was subsequently found
during the survey period at the same locality. The first record for Bukit
Timah was by the second author in 1998, after the survey period when an
example was seen on a tree along Tiup Tiup Path. It has bright yellow
underparts and is mottled brown dorsally with a series of dark brown
blotches down the length of the body. A fringe of loose skin is found on
the sides of the head, body, tail and feet. This cryptic morphology allows it
to blend into the surface of tree trunks or rocks.
390 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
59. Cosymbotes platyurus (Schneider, 1792)
Flat-tailed Gecko
This familiar species resembles C. craspedotus, but is not as cryptic. It also
has a fringe of skin on the sides of the head, body, tail and feet, although
this is much less pronounced. Furthermore, its undersides are also yellow
and under dim light, its beige-brown coloration changes to reveal a similar
series of dark brown blotches down the body. Within the Nature Reserves,
it is usually found on buildings and concrete structures, especially where
there is a light source.
60. Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus (Peters, 1871)
Banded Bent-toed Gecko, Giant Bent-toed Gecko, Peter’s Bent-toed
Gecko
Plate 3d
The opening of the man-made tunnels at Bukit Timah led to the discovery
of C. consobrinus in 1993. Prior to this, it had apparently been observed at
least once at Jungle Fall Valley, but could not be identified. To date, there
are 23 records from Bukit Timah but none from elsewhere. This primary
forest species grows to at least 30 cm, and is often found together with
Cnemaspis kendalli, which it possibly preys on. The coloration varies from
light to dark purplish-brown, with transverse light yellowish bands on the
body, tail and limbs. There is an elaborate, but more or less distinctive,
network of pale yellow on the head and neck.
61. Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus Taylor, 1962
Marbled Bent-toed Gecko, Marbled Forest Gecko
A total of eight records of C. quadrivirgatus were obtained during the pre-
survey period and 20 from the survey period. Most records came from
Nee Soon and Upper Seletar. There was only a single record from Bukit
Timah, where an example was released after having “hitch-hiked” all the
way from South Johor. It is most unusual that no natural populations of C.
quadrivirgatus were located at Bukit Timah, as it seems to have the same
niche as Cnemaspis kendalli.
62. Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1835)
Four-clawed Gecko
Another gecko associated with human dwellings, G. mutilata is perhaps
more adaptable to the forest environment. Juveniles have pink or gold
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 39]
spots on the body (Lim & Lim, 1992) and white spots on the face, which
slowly fade with maturity. This species has only four-clawed digits, and a
head that is more rounded and blunt than the other gecko species. The call
is a series of low and monotonous squeaks. Gehyra mutilata is quite easily
seen along the pipeline at Nee Soon.
63. Gekko monarchus Duméril & Bibron, 1836
Spotted House Gecko
This species is rarely seen in housing estates, but is usually found in houses
and structures near wooded areas, including culverts and covered drains.
Most survey records came from Bukit Timah and Nee Soon. Juveniles
have a banded tail and a row of paired spots from head to tail - markings
that become indistinct with age. The skin of the adult is covered with
prominent, sharp tubercles. Eggs are laid in large clusters cemented
together, and attached to hard surfaces. Like Gehyra mutilata, it has only
four-clawed digits.
64. Gekko smithi Gray, 1842
Large Forest Gecko, Stentor’s Gecko
Largest of our geckoes, G. smithi is more commonly heard than seen.
Adults grow to over 35 cm and can give a nasty bite. They are most
commonly found on dead or dying trees. This species has distinctive green
eyes and an Y-shaped marking on the head. The dorsum and tail has
transverse, dark brown bands. In addition, the bands on the body are
bordered with large white spots. These beautiful markings are more
pronounced in very young juveniles. Bukit Timah is the main refuge for
this forest gecko (17 records), although it also occurs at Nee Soon (five
records) and Lower Peirce (two records).
65. Hemidactylus frenatus Duméril & Bibron, 1836
Common House Gecko
Very familiar by sight and sound to all Singaporeans, H. frenatus (together
with Cosymbotes platyurus) is presumably found in every housing block in
Singapore. Within the Nature Reserves, it is usually found on buildings
with light sources.
66. Hemiphyllodactylus typus typus Bleeker, 1860
Dwarf Gecko
This diminutive gecko was found on bushes in MacRitchie (five records).
392 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
A specimen was also collected at Upper Peirce East, from a resam patch
_ that was being cleared. The only recent record outside the Nature Reserves
was at the Mandai mangroves (Lim ef al., 1993b).
ORDER CROCODILIA
Family Crocodylidae
67. Crocodylus porosus Schneider, 1801
Estuarine Crocodile, Saltwater Crocodile
All recent records of this species within the Nature Reserves are probably
of escapees. It has been seen at Upper Seletar Reservoir and MacRitchie
Reservoir.
ORDER TESTUDINATA
Family Emydidae
68. Cuora amboinensis (Daudin, 1802)
Malayan Box Terrapin
Cuora amboinensis 1s the commonest reptile in the survey (133 records). It
is primarily herbivorous and is found in large numbers in the reservoirs
and adjoining streams. Though amphibious, juveniles are apparently entirely
aquatic (Ernst & Barbour, 1989). Existing populations consist of both
indigenous and feral animals, as Buddhist devotees often release the species
on Vesak Day.
69. Heosemys spinosa (Gray, 1831)
Spiny Terrapin, Spiny Hill Terrapin
Our only true forest terrapin, this uncommon species (29 records) was
recorded from all zones. This is the most terrestrial of our turtles. It is
often encountered walking on the forest floor, sometimes not far from
water. A juvenile with a serrated carapace was recorded at Bukit Timah,
indicating a breeding population there. A few examples were caught in
spring-door traps laid out for small mammals.
70. Notochelys platynota (Gray, 1834)
Malayan Flat-shelled Terrapin
This species is easily identified as it has six to seven vertebral scutes. There
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 393
were six records from the survey. It is found in shallow waters, where it
feeds on aquatic plants (Ernst & Barbour, 1989).
71. Siebenrockiella crassicollis (Gray, 1831)
Black Marsh Terrapin, Black Pond Terrapin
This nocturnal species is abundant in the reservoirs and their inlets. It is
largely carnivorous, feeding on snails, worms, shrimps and other
invertebrates. This species is another favourite with Buddhist devotees on
Vesak Day, and released feral animals probably form a substantial part of
the population.
72. Trachemys scripta elegans (Wied, 1839)
Red-eared Terrapin, Common Slider
This feral species is well established in reservoirs and lakes. It is especially
numerous at the Botanic Gardens, where the first author observed one
laying eggs. There were 87 records from the survey, but fortunately, the
species has not established itself in forest streams. This amphibious terrapin
is more at home in the water, but loves to sun itself on floating logs or at
the water’s edge.
Family Trionychidae
73. Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert, 1770)
Asiatic Soft-shelled Turtle
A large species, A. cartilaginea was mostly recorded from the reservoirs
and adjoining streams (eight records). Adults have carapaces of up to 70
cm in length. This species and Pelodiscus sinensis are often slaughtered to
make turtle soup.
74. Dogania subplana (Geoffroy, 1809)
Forest Soft-shelled Turtle, Malayan Soft-shelled Turtle
Plate 3e
Recently rediscovered in 1989 at Nee Soon, D. subplana is restricted to
clean forest streams. A second record was obtained in 1991 at Rifle Range
Forest (MacRitchie). This attractive turtle has a diagnostic vertebral stripe
and two to three pairs of ocelli on the carapace. Juveniles have a reddish
patch at the sides of the head, which disappear with maturity.
394 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
75. Pelodiscus sinensis (Wiegmann, 1835).
Chinese Soft-shelled Turtle
There were 10 records of this feral species that has established itself in
reservoirs, lakes and canals.
Amphibians
Nomenclature for amphibians generally follows Lim & Lim (1992) and
Berry (1975). For most species, the convention and criteria used in
describing the abundance of amphibians are as follows (numbers indicate
known population size in Singapore):
e Endangered : Occurring in very low numbers (< 30)
e Rare : Occurring in low numbers (30-59)
e Uncommon : Occurring in moderate numbers (60-119)
e Fairly Common : Occurring in high numbers (120-179)
e Common : Occurring in very high numbers (> 179)
During the pre-survey period, 20 indigenous species were recorded.
The survey Period produced 24 species making a total of 25 indigenous
species recorded from 1987 to July 1997 of which 18 are forest species
(72%) and seven others not restricted to forest. The Nature Reserves are
the only refuge for 16 species (64%).
Bukit Timah and Nee Soon are strongholds for threatened amphibians
(Figure 9). Of the 25 indigenous species, 14 (56%) are considered threatened
- seven endangered, four rare and three uncommon. These include the
four localized species, Pelophryne brevipes, Microhyla borneensis,
Theloderma horridum and Rhacophorus bimaculatus. The distribution of
endangered and rare amphibians is mapped out in Figure 10.
ORDER GYMNOPHIONA
Family Ichthyophiidae
1. Ichthyophis cf. paucisulcus (Taylor, 1960)
Yellow-banded Caecilian
The only record for CCNR was in 1989 (Lim, 1990a) at Nee Soon. There
are only two other recent records, both from Bukit Timah (Ng et al., 1988;
Ng, 1989). This species is perhaps overlooked, as it lives under soil in the
vicinity of streams.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 395
No. of species
/ Ll a &
4a i @
a:
Bukit Timah Nee Soon Lower Peirce Mandai Upper Seletar MacRitchie
| Endangered i Rare Uncommon | |
Figure 9. Number of threatened amphibian species in the Nature Reserves.
ORDER ANURA
Family Pelobatidae
2. Megophrys nasuta (Schlegel, 1858)
Malayan Horned Frog, Malayan Horned Toad
There were 16 records of this cryptic frog from the pre-survey period and
36 from the survey period. Although Lim (1994) considered this species to
be uncommon, we are listing it as rare, based on the relatively low number
of records. Furthermore, the main populations are confined to Bukit Timah
(40 records) and Nee Soon (10), with only a single record each from Upper
Seletar and Mandai.
3. Leptobrachium nigrops Berry & Hendrickson, 1963
Black-eyed Litter Frog
This species is common in the Nature Reserves usually near streams or
larger water bodies, it is more often heard than seen,. There were 158
records from the survey period. It has never been recorded far from the
Nature Reserves.
396
Megophrys nasuta
Bufo quadriporcatus
Rana glandulosa
Limnonectes paramacrodon
Rana plicatella
Rhacophorus bimaculatus
SELETAR
RESERVOIR
Ichthyophis cf. paucisulcus
Nyctixalus pictus
Microhyla borneensis
Theloderma horridum
Pelophryne brevipes
Figure 10. Distribution of endangered and rare amphibians.
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 397
Family Bufonidae
4. Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799
Asian Toad, Asiatic Toad
This ubiquitous species is found all over Singapore. It has even managed
to penetrate primary forest in the Nature Reserves, and is especially
common at Bukit Timah (60 records).
5. Bufo quadriporcatus Boulenger, 1887
Four-ridged Toad
A recent discovery from MacRitchie (Lim, 1989a), B. quadriporcatus is
found near swampy areas. A total of eight were recorded in the pre-survey
period, four each at MacRitchie and Nee Soon. During the survey, there
were three more records - two at MacRitchie and one at Nee Soon.
Although Lim (1994) stated that this species is “commonly heard” in Nee
Soon, the authors are of the opinion that it is endangered.
6. Pelophryne brevipes (Peters, 1867)
Saint Andrew’s Cross Toadlet
A primary forest species, P. brevipes, was rediscovered in 1989 at Bukit
Timah, where only two were recorded (Lim, 1990b). There were only two
other records from the past, making this a highly endangered amphibian.
Family Ranidae
7. Limnonectes blythii (Boulenger, 1920)
Malayan Giant Frog, Blyth’s Frog
Our largest indigenous frog, L. blythii can grow to over 20 cm. It is
widespread, but confined to the Nature Reserves. Its habits are very similar
to Limnonectes malesiana.
8. Limnonectes malesiana Kiew, 1984
Malesian Frog
Though uncommon, L. malesiana is widespread and occurs in all zones.
This large species is often encountered sitting in shallow streams or by the
edge of reservoirs within the Nature Reserves.
398 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
9. Limnonectes paramacrodon (Inger, 1966)
Masked Swamp Frog
Plate 4a
This rare species was officially recorded for Singapore in 1988 at Nee
Soon, although a specimen was collected in 1974 at the same locality (Lim,
1989b). There were 26 records in the pre-survey period, all from Nee
Soon. In the survey period, nine records were obtained - eight at Nee Soon
and one from a new locality at Chestnut Track Forest (Mandai).
Limnonectes paramacrodon is dependent on swamp forest habitat.
10. Occidozyga laevis (Giinther, 1859)
Smooth Puddle Frog, Yellow-bellied Puddle Frog
A tiny frog, O. laevis is found in puddles and waterlogged areas. Distinct
morphological variation in different areas was observed, as all frogs from
Upper Seletar North were plain brown with a patch of orange on the
snout.
11. Rana baramica Boettger, 1901
Masked Rough-sided Frog
This species is usually found in marshy areas, but the first author has
recorded one on leaf litter far from water at Bukit Timah. It is widely
distributed in the Nature Reserves, but has not been encountered outside
the Nature Reserves.
12. Rana cancrivora Gravenhorst, 1829
Crab-eating Frog, Mangrove Frog
This frog can tolerate brackish water, and is more commonly found near
the coast, in mangroves, prawn ponds and cultivated land. The young frogs
sold as fish feed in aquarium shops are of this species.
13. Rana chalconota (Schlegel, 1837)
Copper-cheeked Frog, White-lipped Frog
This is without doubt the commonest frog in the Nature Reserves - a total
of 526 records were obtained in the survey. It is easily detected through its
call and is often found on low vegetation.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 399
14. Rana erythraea (Schlegel, 1837)
Common Greenback, Green Paddy Frog
More aquatic than most other frogs in Singapore, R. erythraea 1s usually
found near open water bodies, never in true forest. It is widespread in the
Nature Reserves.
15. Rana glandulosa Boulenger, 1882
Rough-sided Frog
Plate 4b
This species was first recorded for Singapore in 1993 from MacRitchie
North. Four examples were recorded then, and the area was subsequently
found to have the largest population (42 records). Ten more individuals
were found in three other zones, making a total of 52 records for the
survey. It is not surprising that previous researchers have missed the species
- most of our records were based on its call, which was learned only during
the survey. Although rather widespread, R. glandulosa is currently recorded
only from CCNR and 1s considered rare.
16. Rana limnocharis Boie, in Wiegmann, 1835
Field Frog, Grass Frog
This very common frog is found in most habitats in Singapore. In urban
areas, it can be encountered in fields, especially after rain. Rana limnocharis
is widespread in the Nature Reserves where it is usually recorded in
disturbed areas like reservoir edges and ditches.
17. Rana plicatella Stoliczka, 1873
Rhinoceros Frog
The main population of R. plicatella occurs at Bukit Timah, where its call,
a slowly rising, quivering warble, is often heard. The species is, however,
still considered rare, as there were only three records outside Bukit Timah
(at Nee Soon). There were a total of seven records from the pre-survey
period and 50 records from the survey period. Rana plicatella is found in
shallow streams and often hides under nearby leaf litter. When disturbed,
it makes quick short hops for cover, and has even been observed to hop
sideways.
400 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Family Rhacophoridae
18. Rhacophorus bimaculatus (Peters, 1867)
Blue-legged Tree Frog
Rhacophorus bimaculatus was first discovered over 30 years ago from the
Nee Soon (Lim & Yang, 1991), but was not recorded again until 1994. The
first author chanced upon the single example at Nee Soon, at the edge of a
forest stream (Lim, 1994a). It was not as brightly coloured as examples
from Malaysia.
19. Nyctixalus pictus (Peters, 1871)
Spotted Tree Frog, Painted Tree Frog
A healthy population of N. pictus holds out in Bukit Timah - a total of 67
records were obtained during the survey period. We only learned to
recognize its calls during the survey at Bukit Timah, and it is suspected
that the species will be found to be more widespread at CCNR, where 6
tadpoles were recorded in 1996 at Nee Soon (T.M. Leong, pers. comm.).
20. Polypedates leucomystax (Boie, in Gravenhorst, 1829)
Common Tree Frog, Four-lined Tree Frog
Polypedates leucomystax is a common species, even in gardens and parks
around Singapore. It can sometimes be found clinging onto walls of houses.
It is most commonly found on low vegetation, and is easily located by its
call. At night, P. /euwcomystax is brown in color, usually with stripes or
spots on the back, but in the daytime, it sometimes turns pale beige.
21. Theloderma horridum (Boulenger, 1903)
Thorny Tree Frog
Plate 4c
Leong et al. (1996) recorded the discovery of this very cryptic rhacophorid.
Five other records were obtained from Taban Valley at Bukit Timah. This
species was found clinging onto tree trunks, 1-2 m from the forest floor. It
is superbly camouflaged against lichen-covered bark. In the day, the frog
probably hides in the canopy, but descends down the trunk at night to look
for food.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 401
Family Microhylidae
22. Kaloula pulchra Gray, 1831.
Banded Bullfrog, Painted Bullfrog
In urban areas, the bellowing call of this feral species is characteristic after
a downpour. It is beginning to penetrate the Nature Reserves - a total of
13 were recorded during the survey. This frog hides in crevices or burrows
into the sides of ditches during the day. It has also been found hiding 1-2
m above ground, usually in the fork of a tree.
23. Kalophrynus pleurostigma Tschudi, 1838
Black-spotted Sticky Frog
Previously known only from Bukit Timah (Lim & Yang, 1991; Lim & Lim,
1992), K. pleurostigma was first recorded from CCNR in 1993, at MacRitchie
North, where one was found. By the end of the survey, a total of four had
been recorded (two at MacRitchie, one at Nee Soon, and one at Lower
Peirce). Although these are the only records from CCNR, the population
at Bukit Timah was found to be large (70 records). The status of this
primary forest species is hence updated to uncommon. This leaf-litter
species is not dependent on streams and is usually found on the forest
floor. It probably breeds in puddles and any water-filled hole or receptacle,
including the ground cups of pitcher plants (Lim & Lim, 1992). Inger &
Stuebing (1997) reported that K. pleurostigma (in Borneo) feeds mainly on
ants and termites.
24. Microhyla borneensis Parker, 1926
Bornean Narrow-mouthed Frog, Bornean Chorus Frog
Plate 4d
Leong & Chou (1997) reported the first record of this primary forest frog
in Singapore. It is known only from Rifle Range Forest (MacRitchie)
where five were recorded in 1996 (one specimen collected and four others
heard). Tadpoles were also found in the same location. More intensive
work on leaf-litter fauna, will probably produce more records of this species,
and perhaps lead to the discovery of other microhylids.
25. Microhyla butleri Boulenger, 1900
Painted Narrow-mouthed Frog, Painted Chorus Frog
Seldom seen, but actually very common, this species is usually detected
402 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
through its call. Males gather in large calling groups near small pools of
water or ditches.
26. Microhyla heymonsi Vogt, 1911
Dark-sided Narrow-mouthed Frog, Dark-sided Chorus Frog
This species is similar in behaviour to M. butleri, and can often be found
together with it. Likewise, it is very common all around Singapore.
Discussion
The Nature Reserves are the only protected refuges for the incredible
diversity of flora and fauna that survives in rain forest. Yet, in this century,
very few studies of our rain forest fauna have been carried out. The few
projects that have been conducted at BT'NR were usually short-term,
sporadic and narrow in scope. In recent years, there has been a notable
increase in observer effort to document sightings of fauna, especially
mammals, reptiles and amphibians. However, no long-term research projects
had been initiated until this survey. It is therefore not surprising that so
many species have been “missing” in recent decades.
Comparing data from the pre-survey period to that from the survey
period indicates that casual observation alone is insufficient to have a good
picture of the diversity, abundance and distribution of mammal, reptile
and amphibian species. One reason is that many species are not easily
observed, let alone identified, in the field (e.g., bats and murids). For
instance, because proper studies on bats had not been conducted for about
70 years, 20 out of the 25 species in Yang et al. (1990) were listed as
indeterminate. Yet, Pottie (1996) reported the rediscoveries of nine
microchiropterans, as well as the addition of two new species to Singapore’s
checklist! In addition, three megachiropterans were also rediscovered in
the same project.
Another reason is that most species are also nocturnal, making
detection even more difficult, and species with small, localized populations
are easily overlooked. Only sufficient time in the field, using proper survey
techniques, would help us better understand the present situation regarding
our mammals, reptiles and amphibians.
The survey has certainly been successful in updating our knowledge
on the mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Data collected on forest species,
especially mammals, are the most thorough in a few decades. Coupled
with data from the pre-survey period, the survey has given us a good
baseline assessment of the current diversity, abundance and distribution of
a
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 403
species in the Nature Reserves. Of the 141 indigenous species recorded, 74
are forest species (52%) that are highly dependent on forest habitats for
their survival. About 85% of these species are locally threatened with
extinction and their future survival will depend greatly on the sound
management and protection of Nature Reserves. Their abundance and
distribution are good indicators of the condition of our forests and indeed
the health of our Nature Reserves.
Diversity and distribution
The Nature Reserves still have a very high diversity of indigenous mammals,
reptiles and amphibians (141 species), representing about 86% of all species
that are known to still exist in Singapore. Of the six zones, Bukit Timah,
Nee Soon and MacRitchie are the best known and have received good
coverage by researchers and casual observers throughout the past decade.
They are the most diverse in terms of species occurring, and support the
most number of threatened species. This is not surprising as these zones
hold the bulk of primary habitats left in the Nature Reserves.
1. Bukit Timah
Bukit Timah is probably the best-known nature site in Singapore and has
received fairly good coverage by researchers and casual observers, both in
the past and in recent times. Research has, however, been largely confined
to specific studies such as that on Macaca fascicularis (Corlett & Lucas,
1995).
About half of Bukit Timah supports original Coastal Hill Dipterocarp
Forest, the only forest of this kind in Singapore. This habitat, together with
the adjacent secondary habitats, is most important as a major refuge for a
large diversity of indigenous species including a high number that are
threatened. With 50 threatened species recorded, Bukit Timah is the most
vital zone for mammal, reptile and amphibian species. It is home to ten
localized species and the main populations of seven other species. This is
astounding as Bukit Timah is one of the smallest zones.
2. Nee Soon Zone
Nee Soon includes the only primary freshwater swamp forest left in
Singapore, as well as good tracts of primary lowland dipterocarp forest at
Three-Stone Hill and Nee Soon East. It is the second most important area
for indigenous mammals, reptiles and amphibians (89 species), as well as
404 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
threatened species (46 species). Nee Soon also has the second highest
number of localized species with six species that are currently not known
to occur outside this zone. In addition, Nee Soon holds the main populations
for three species that were only discovered within the last decade. The
whole zone is therefore vital as a core area for the northern half of CCNR.
3. MacRitchie Zone
The most substantial stands of primary lowland dipterocarp forest (over
250 ha) are to be found within this zone, at MacRitchie North and Thomson
Ridge. There is also a 160-ha freshwater swamp forest, which is distinct
from that at Nee Soon. Together, they form the core area for the southern
half of CCNR. However, the other sectors in MacRitchie are also important,
as they consist mainly of mature secondary forest. Given time, these areas
will be comparable to the primary vegetation.
MacRitchie has the third highest diversity of indigenous species (88
species) and threatened species (40 species). With two discoveries and
three localized species, MacRitchie is unquestionably a key area for
mammals, reptiles and amphibians.
4. Lower Peirce Zone
The diversity of indigenous species at Lower Peirce is surprisingly impressive
(77 species), when we consider that it is a relatively small area, consisting
mainly of secondary forest. One obvious reason for this is that Lower
Peirce is basically continuous with Nee Soon. For example, Presbytis
femoralis has “colonized” Lower Peirce from Nee Soon with perhaps two
troops in the zone. For many other threatened species at Nee Soon, Lower
Peirce represents a natural extension to their range, and offers opportunities
for expansion of their populations.
The large number of road-kill records at Old Upper Thomson Road
is unfortunate but interesting — it indicates that animals, especially snakes,
are regularly crossing to and from the adjacent unprotected woodland.
5. Upper Seletar Zone
Prior to the survey, there were very few mammal, reptile and amphibian
records from Upper Seletar. Furthermore, most of the pre-survey records
came from the Singapore Zoological Gardens and its vicinity.
Upper Seletar is highly fragmented, and except for a few patches,
the forest is mainly secondary in nature. Even so, its mammal and amphibian
diversities are comparable to MacRitchie. This is largely due to the fact
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 405
that the zone also contains substantial areas of abandoned agricultural
land where a good number of non-forest species were recorded. Still, Upper
Seletar has a good number of threatened species, including four localized
species.
6. Mandai Zone
As Mandai is rather inaccessible, records for this zone were practically
non-existent prior to the survey (one indigenous species). During the survey,
even though fieldwork was confined to a few trails, Mandai produced the
greatest increase in diversity (52 indigenous species). In fact, Mandai has
the highest mammal diversity (24 species) in CCNR. Reptile diversity was,
however, very low — this was probably due to the lack of motorable roads
and hence road-kill records. As much of the zone is still unexplored, many
more species will definitely be recorded with continued surveys and casual
visits.
For survey purposes, Mandai was designated as a separate zone, but
in actuality, it is totally continuous with Nee Soon. Together with Lower
Peirce, they comprise the largest contiguous rain forest in Singapore and
one of the core areas for mammal, reptile and amphibian conservation.
The importance of this cannot be over-emphasized — the combined species
diversity accounts for over 80% of CCNR’s total checklist.
Abundance
A remarkable 80 species (57%) are considered threatened. These include
four subspecies unique to Singapore, and 24 localized species. In addition,
about 35 species (25%) had only five or less records within the past decade
for the whole of Singapore! This highlights the urgent need to increase
conservation efforts to turn the tide. Measures to set aside core areas for
the sole purpose of conservation and enhancing existing populations should
be seriously looked into.
A few species are, however, deemed to be overly abundant within
the Nature Reserves. These include Tupaia glis, Cynopterus brachyotis,
Macaca fascicularis, Sundasciurus tenuis and Rattus annandalei. In
Peninsular Malaysia, densities for these species within the forest are
generally much lower. The exceptionally successful trappings of 7. glis,
and R. annandalei indicate a dominance of these species on the forest
floor. The pressing question is whether the populations of these species
are detrimental to rarer species like Presbytis femoralis, Rhinosciurus
laticaudatus, Maxomys surifer and M. rajah.
406 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Conclusions
Mammal, reptile and amphibian diversity in the Nature Reserves is still
very high in relation to other nature areas in Singapore. The key areas for
conservation are Bukit Timah, Nee Soon and MacRitchie, based on their
high species diversity and the significantly greater number of threatened
species. They should be set aside as core zones, with the incorporation of
Mandai and Lower Peirce, which are contiguous with Nee Soon. This
extended area has a higher carrying capacity than the key areas alone, and
will allow mammal, reptile and amphibian populations within to thrive and
flourish. Furthermore, Lower Peirce is especially important for snakes,
and Mandai though insufficiently surveyed, has already shown its
importance for mammal conservation.
Acknowledgements
The contribution of committee members of the Vertebrate Study Group
(Yeo Suay Hwee, Lee King Li, Ng Bee Choo, Kieu Kim Sen, Kelvin Lim,
Timothy Pwee, and Cheryl Chia) was invaluable to the planning and
execution of this massive survey. We appreciate NParks for giving us the
opportunity to participate in the Nature Reserves survey. Special thanks
to Sharon Chan, Lena Chan, Cheryl Chia, Saifuddin Suran, and Chew
Ping Ting for their patience and assistance in working with us throughout
the survey. GIS maps were painstakingly produced by Cheryl Chia and
Chew Ping Ting. Richard Corlett, as NParks’ Coordinating Consultant,
gave important advice and suggestions. This project would have been
impossible without the help of the daily-rated employees at Bukit Timah —
they did a tremendous job in setting up and collecting traps in the field.
Kelvin Lim was instrumental in the identification of species through
photographs and specimens. We are indebted to Yang Chang Man and the
rest of her staff at Zoological Reference Collection for allowing us to
access specimens. Field surveys would not have been possible without the
time and effort put in by many volunteers who joined us in our nocturnal
sessions. The more regular participants were Lee King Li, Yeo Suay
Hwee, Andrew Tay, Timothy Pwee, Kieu Kim Sen, Wang Luan Keng,
Cheryl Chia, Saifuddin Suran, Benjamin Lee, Goh Yue Yun, Margie Hall,
Lim Lea Cheen, Ng Bee Choo, Leong Tzi Ming, Chew Ping Ting, Richard
Frazier, Goh Si Guim, Tan Tze Siong, Tan Hang Chong, Debra Yeo, Billy
Kon and Lyndon Gan. We would also like to extend our thanks to all
others who helped in the field in one way or another. And finally, thanks
to all contributors to the Vertebrate Study Group’s newsletter, Pangolin,
which provided additional data accumulated over the past decade.
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 407
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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 413
Appendix 1. Records of Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians (1987-
1998).
Cervus unicolor
[Cynopterus brachyotis {75 |54__| 137 | 109 |209 | 96 | 680 _|
[Emballonuramonticola 16 =| | S| | |
Co pe ee omen ee ea oa ee Oa a Ee
[Hylopetes spadicems | | LL ds
ol ipa a a el a a A
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Peecemrecirent 7? Cee yrs
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414 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 415
5
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nN
416 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
==
7
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[Xenochrophis piscator |
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36 130d
Limnonectes malesiana
Limnonectes paramacrodon
Megophrys nasuta
Microhyla borneensis
Microhyla butleri
Microhyla heymonsi
Nyctixalus pictus
Occidozyga laevis
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Polypedates leucomystax
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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 417
ispecies! GE [priins “temp [us| me | total |
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des el
429 [8 |i |s2_| 257
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aE aR PO
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418
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Appendix 2. Checklist of Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians of
the Nature Reserves.
Key to Symbols
Conservation Status (CS)
En — Endangered
Ra —- Rare
Un - Uncommon
Fc — Fairly Common
Co —- Common
In — Indeterminate
Species Status (SS)
R - Resident
FR - Feral (Reintroduced)
FE - Feral (Exotic)
V - Visitor
FS - Forest Specialist
ES - Endemic Subspecies
LS - Localized Species
Sighting Record (SR)
D - Discovery
ReD - Recent Discovery
R - Rediscovery
ReR - Recent Rediscovery
A. Mammals
No. Species
1. Arctogalidia trivirgata
2. Callosciurus notatus
3. Canis familiaris
4. Cervus unicolor
5. Cheiromeles torquatus
6. Crocidura cf. fuliginosa
7. Cynocephalus variegatus
8. Cynopterus brachyotis
9. Emballonura monticola
10. Eonycteris spelaea
11. Hylopetes spadiceus
12. lomys horsfieldii
13. Macaca fascicularis
14. Manis javanica
15. Maxomys rajah
16. Maxomys surifer
17. Muntiacus muntjak
18. Myotis adversus
19. Myotis muricola
20. Nycteris tragata
21. Nycticebus coucang
22. Paguma larvata
23. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
24. Penthetor lucasi
25. ?Pipistrellus sp.
26. Presbytis femoralis
27. Pteropus vampyrus
28. Rattus annandalei
29. Rattus exulans
30. Rattus rattus
31. Rattus tiomanicus
32. Ratufa affinis
Common Name CS SS SR
Small-toothed Palm Civet En R R
Plantain Squirrel Co R, ES
Feral Dog Co FE
Sambar FR, FS, LS
Naked Bat En R, LS
South-east Asian White-toothed Shrew En R
Malayan Colugo Fe R, FS
Lesser Dog-faced Fruit Bat Co R
Lesser Sheath-tailed Bat En R, FSS R
Cave Nectar Bat Un R ReR
Red-cheeked Flying Squirrel En R, FS, LS D
Horsfield’s Flying Squirrel En R, FS, LS R
Long-tailed Macaque Co R
Sunda Pangolin En R
Brown Spiny Rat En R, FS D
Red Spiny Rat In R, BS, BS,
Common Barking Deer FR, FS, LS
Grey Large-footed Myotis Co R ReR
Whiskered Myotis Co R
Hollow-faced Bat En R, FS, LS D
Slow Loris En R, FS
Masked Palm Civet En R, FS R
Common Palm Civet Un R
Dusky Fruit Bat En RK, FS, LS R
Pipistrelle A Un R 2R
Banded Leaf Monkey En R, FS
Large Flying Fox Un V
Annandale’s Rat Co R
Polynesian Rat Co R
House Rat Co R
Malaysian Wood Rat Un R
Cream-coloured Giant Squirrel En R, FS, ES
EOE
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians
A. Mammals
No. Species
33. Rhinolophus lepidus
34. Rhinolophus luctus
35. Rhinolophus trifoliatus
36. Rhinosciurus laticaudatus
37. Scotophilus kuhlii
38. Suncus murinus
39. Sundasciurus tenuis
40. Taphozous saccolaimus
41. Tragulus javanicus
42. Tupaia glis
43. Tylonycteris pachypus
44. Tylonycteris robustula
45. Viverra tangalunga
B. Reptiles
No. Species
1. Ahaetulla fasciolata
2. Ahaetulla prasina
3. Amyda cartilaginea
4. Aphaniotis fusca
5. Boiga cynodon
6. Boiga dendrophila
7. Boiga jaspidea
8. Bronchocela cristatella
9. Calamaria lumbricoidea
10. Calamaria schlegeli
11. Calotes versicolor
12. Chrysopelea paradisi
13. Chrysopelea pelias
14. Cnemaspis kendalli
15. Cosymbotes craspedotus
16. Cosymbotes platyurus
17. Crocodylus porosus
18. Cuora amboinensis
19. Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus
20. Cyrtodactylus quadrivirgatus
21. Dasia cf. grisea
22. Dasia olivacea
23. Dendrelaphis caudolineatus
24. Dendrelaphis formosus
25. Dendrelaphis pictus
26. Dogania subplana
27. Draco melanopogon
28. Draco volans
Common Name
Blyth’s Horseshoe Bat
Great Woolly Horseshoe Bat
Trefoil Horseshoe Bat
Shrew-faced Ground Squirrel
Lesser Asiatic Yellow House Bat
House Shrew
Slender Squirrel
Pouched Tomb Bat
Lesser Mousedeer
Common Treeshrew
Lesser Bamboo Bat
Greater Bamboo Bat
Malay Civet
Common Name
Speckle-headed Whip Snake
Oriental Whip Snake
Malayan Soft-shelled Turtle
Earless Agamid
Dog-toothed Cat Snake
Yellow-ringed Cat Snake
Jasper’s Cat Snake
Green Crested Lizard
Variable Reed Snake
Pink-headed Reed Snake
Changeable Lizard
Paradise Tree Snake
Twin-barred Tree Snake
Kendall’s Rock Gecko
Frilly Gecko
Flat-tailed Gecko
Estuarine Crocodile
Malayan Box Terrapin
Banded Bent-toed Gecko
Marbled Bent-toed Gecko
Brown Tree Skink
Olive Tree Skink
Striped Bronzeback
Elegant Bronzeback
Painted Bronzeback
Forest Soft-shelled Turtle
Black-bearded Flying Dragon
Common Flying Dragon
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, ES, LS: ReR
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420
B. Reptiles
No. Species
. Dryocalamus subannulatus
. Dryophiops rubescens
. Elaphe flavolineata
. Gehyra mutilata
. Gekko monarchus
. Gekko smithi
. Gonyosoma oxycephala
. Hemidactylus frenatus
. Hemiphyllodactylus typus
. Heosemys spinosa
. Homalopsis buccata
. Liopeltis baliodeirus
. Lipinia cf. vittigera
. Lygosoma sp.
. Mabuya multifasciata
. Mabuya rugifera
. Macropisthodon rhodomelas
. Maticora bivirgata
. Maticora intestinalis
. Naja sumatrana
. Notochelys platynota
. Oligodon octolineatus
. Oligodon signatus
. Ophiophagus hannah
. Ophites aulicus
. Ophites subcinctus
. Pelodiscus sinensis
. Psammodynastes pictus
. Pseudorhabdion longiceps
. Ptyas carinatus
. Ptyas korros
. Python reticulatus
. Ramphotyphlops braminus
. Rhadophis subminiatus
. Riopa bowringi
. Sibynophis melanocephalus
. Siebenrockiella crassicollis
. Trachemys scripta
. Tropidolaemus wagleri
. Varanus nebulosus
. Varanus salvator
. Xenelaphis hexagonotus
. Xenochrophis maculatus
. Xenochrophis piscator
. Xenochrophis trianguligerus
Common Name
Saddled Tree Snake
Keel-bellied Whip Snake
Common Racer
Four-clawed Gecko
Spotted House Gecko
Large Forest Gecko
Red-tailed Racer
Common House Gecko
Dwarf Gecko
Spiny Terrapin
Puff-faced Water Snake
Orange-bellied Ringneck
Yellow-striped Skink
Supple Skink A
Common Sun Skink
Striped Sun Skink
Blue-necked Keelback
Blue Malayan Coral Snake
Banded Malayan Coral Snake
Black Spitting Cobra
Malayan Flat-shelled Terrapin
Striped Kukri Snake
Barred Kukri Snake
King Cobra
Common Wolf Snake
Banded Wolf Snake
Chinese Soft-shelled Turtle
Painted Mock Viper
Dwarf Reed Snake
Keeled Rat Snake
Indo-Chinese Rat Snake
Reticulated Python
Common Blind Snake
Red-necked Keelback
Garden Supple Skink
Black-headed Collared Snake
Black Marsh Terrapin
Red-eared Terrapin
Wagler’s Pit Viper
Clouded Monitor
Malayan Water Monitor
Malayan Brown Snake
Spotted Keelback
Chequered Keelback
Triangle Keelback
Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
CS
En
En
Fe
Co
Fe
Un
En
Co
En
Un
Fe
Ra
En
?En
Co
En
Fe
Un
Un
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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 421
B. Reptiles
No. Species Common Name CS SS SR
74. Xenopeltis unicolor Sunbeam Snake Fe R
75. Zaocys fuscus White-bellied Rat Snake En RBS US R
C. Amphibians
No. Species Common Name CS SS SR
1. Bufo melanostictus Asian Toad Co R
2. Bufo quadriporcatus Four-ridged Toad En R, FS ReD
3. Ichthyophis cf. paucisulcus —_ Yellow-banded Caecilian En RFS
4. Kalophrynus pleurostigma Black-spotted Sticky Frog Un RES
5. Kaloula pulchra Banded Bullfrog Co FE
6. Leptobrachium nigrops Black-eyed Litter Frog Fe Ky ES
7. Limnonectes blythii Malayan Giant Frog Fe R, FS
8. Limnonectes malesiana Malesian Frog Un R, FS
9. Limnonectes paramacrodon Masked Swamp Frog Ra R, FS ReD
10. Megophrys nasuta Malayan Horned Frog En R, FS
11. Microhyla borneensis Bornean Narrow-mouthed Frog — En R; FS, LS D
12. Microhyla butleri Painted Narrow-mouthed Frog Co R
13. Microhyla heymonsi Dark-sided Narrow-mouthed Frog Co R
14. Nyctixalus pictus Spotted Tree Frog Ra R, FS
15. Occidozyga laevis Smooth Puddle Frog Fe RFS
16. Pelophryne brevipes Saint Andrew’s Cross Toadlet En RFS) LS ReR
17. Polypedates leucomystax Common Tree Frog Co R
18. Rana baramica Masked Rough-sided Frog Un R, FS
19. Rana cancrivora Crab-eating Frog Co ae
20. Rana chalconota Copper-cheeked Frog Co R,FS
21. Rana erythraea Common Greenback Co R
22. Rana glandulosa Rough-sided Frog Ra R, FS D
23. Rana limnocharis Field Frog Co R
24. Rana plicatella Rhinoceros Frog Ra R, FS
25. Rhacophorus bimaculatus __ Blue-legged Tree Frog En R, FS,LS R
26. Theloderma horridum Thorny Bush Frog En RSLS D
422 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Shirley Pottie
Lee King Li
Plate Ib
Plate la
obert Teo
Lee King Li
Plate Ic.
Plate 1. Some of the endangered mammals found in the Nature Reserves. a. Penthetor lucasi
(Dusky Fruit Bat). b. Nycteris tragata (Hollow-faced Bat). ¢. Rhinolophus trifoliatus (Trefoil
Horseshoe Bat). d. Rhinolophus luctus (Great Woolly Horseshoe Bat).
OaL Meqoy “eZ aed
ing Squirrel)
cheeked Fly
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Mammals, reptiles and amphibians
(Red
424 Gard. Bull. Singapore 49(2) (1997)
Lee King Li
Robert Teo
th
Plate 3a
Plate
Robert Teo
Robert Teo
Plate 3d
Plate 3e
Plate 3. Some of the endangered reptiles found in the Nature Reserves. a. Dryocalamus
subannulatus (Saddled Tree Snake). b. Xenochrophis trianguligerus (Triangle Keelback). c.
Cosymbotes craspedotus (Frilly Gecko). d. Cyrtodactylus cf. consobrinus (Banded Bent-toed
Gecko). e. Dogania subplana (Forest Soft-shelled Turtle).
Mammals, reptiles and amphibians 425
Lee King Li
Plate 4b. Lee King Li
Plate 4a
Lee King Li
Plate 4d. Leong Tzi Ming
Plate 4c.
Plate 4. Rare (a—b) and endangered (c—d) amphibians found in the Nature Reserves. a.
Limnonectes paramacrodon (Masked Swamp Frog). b. Rana glandulosa (Rough-sided Frog).
c. Theloderma horridum (Thorny Tree Frog). d. Microhyla borneensis (Bornean Narrow-
mouthed Frog).
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References to books and monographs should be cited according to the following form:
Ridley, H.N. 1930. The Dispersal of Plants Throughout the World. L.Reeve, Ashford,
Kent.
For literature citations in taxonomic papers the following style is required:
Medinilla alternifolia Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. I:2 (1849) 19.
Sterculia acuminatissima Merr., Philip. J. Sci. 21 (1922) 524.
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